Maritime-Related Cults in the Coastal Cities of Philistia during the Roman Periodquestions the origins and the traditions of the cultic rites practised during Roman times along the southern shores of the Land of Israel. This area was known since biblical times as 'Peleshet' (Philistia), after the name of one of the Sea Peoples that had settled there at the beginning of the Iron Age. Philistia's important cities Jaffa, Ashkelon, Gaza and Rafiah were culturally and religiously integrated into the Graeco-Roman world. At the same time, each city developed its own original and unique group of myths and cults that had their roots in earlier periods. Their emergence and formation were influenced by environmental conditions as well as by ethno-social structures and political circumstances. Philistia's port cities served as crossroads for the routes connecting the main centres of culture and commerce in ancient times. Most of their cults were closely associated with the sea, and reflect the existential dependency of the inhabitants on the sea that supplied them with sustenance and livelihood and was regarded as a divine beneficent power. The myths also echo the lives of the sailors, their beliefs and fears derived from encountering the dangers of the sea: storms, floods, reefs and giant fish portrayed as monsters. The population of the cities was of mixed and varied ethnic and cultural origins. This was the result of the waves of conquests and migrations over the ages, yet each city was noted for its unique ethnic components. The book also deals with the political circumstances, which had a decisive impact on the formation of religious life and cultic rites in all four cities. It sheds new light to the understanding of the events and historical processes in the region.

• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents Page
• Dedication
• Introduction
• Jaffa
  • 2.1. Introduction
    • Figure 1. Jaffa coin. First century BCE or first century CE. Bust of Tyche, veiled, wearing mural crown. Courtesy of the collections of the Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Photo by Tal Rogovski.
  • 2.2.a. Gad and Tyche (τύχη): Gods of Fortune and Gods of the City (figures 1–2)
    • Figure 2. Jaffa coin. Diadumenian (217–218 CE). Tyche/Amazon in a two-storied temple. Courtesy of the collections of the Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Photo by Tal Rogovski.
  • 2.2.b. The Shrines of Tyche (figure 2)
  • 2.3. Perseus (Περσέυς) (figure 3)
    • Figure 3. Corinthian amphora from the first half of the sixth century BCE. Perseus and Andromeda throwing stones at Ketos. The inscriptions denoting the depicted persons are written in an archaic form of the Greek alphabet. Altes Museum, Berlin. Drawing:
      • Figure 4. Jaffa coin from the first century BCE or first century CE. Andromeda chained to a rock. Courtesy of the collections of the Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Photo by Tal Rogovski.
  • 2.4. Andromeda (Ανδρομέδα) (figures 4–6)
    • Figure 5. Depiction of Jaffa port with the vaulted caves/nausoikoi, in Zuallaert’s Voyage, 1586. Drwaing: Margalit Levitan.
      • Figure 6. Campanian Red-figure Bell-krater. 330–320 BCE. Perseus rescuing Andromeda from the sea monster. Andromeda is tied between two stakes on the shoreline here represented by the wave pattern. Perseus is carrying the harpe. Both Andromeda and Perseus
  • 2.5. Athena (Αθηνά) (figure 7)
    • Figure 7. Jaffa coin. Severus Alexander (222–235 CE). Athena stands facing right, holdindg spear and resting hand on shield; ΦΛ ΙΟΠΠΗC (of Flavia Joppa). Courtesy of Heritage Auctions, Inc.
  • 2.6. Poseidon (Ποσειδώνας)
  • 2.7. The Bull
  • 2.8. Cassiopeia (Κασσιόπη) (figure 8)
    • Figure 8. ‘Krisis Nereidon’ in the mosaic from Nea Paphos, from the fourth century CE. Drawing: Margalit Levitan.
  • 2.9. The Nereids (Νηρηίδες) (figure 9)
    • Figure 9. Marble sarcophagus from Rome or Ostia decorated with couples of Nereids and Tritons. 200–300 CE. Courtesy Bible Lands Museum Jerusalem; Photo: Moshe Caine.
  • 2.10. Aphrodite (Αφροδίτη)
  • 2.11. Cetos (Κήτος) (figures 10–11)
    • Figure 10. Campanian Hydria (375–325 BCE). Perseus fights the cetos with the spear and harpe. Altes Museum, Berlin. Drawing: Margalit Levitan.
      • Figure 11. Fourteen metres long fin whale calf skeleton exhibited at Haifa University, Multi-purpose building. The whale arrived to Ashkelon shore in February 2008 and died there. Courtesy of Dan Kerem.
  • 2.12. The Cult of the Prophet Jonah and the Big Fish
  • 2.13. The Ship and its Crew in the Story of Jonah: Beliefs and Practices
  • 2.14. The Cult of Jonah in Christianity
  • 2.15. ‘The beauty of Japhet in the Tents of Shem’: Dan and the Danites and their Heritage in Jaffa
• Ashkelon
  • 3.1. Introduction
  • 3.2. Philistine Astarte (Ἀστάρτη Παλαιστινη)/Heavenly Aphrodite (Άφροδίτη Οὐρανία) (figures 12-13)
    • Figure 12. Ashkelon coin. Domitian (81–96 CE). Year 85/6 CE. Fortuna/Astarte standing on prow of galley to left, holding standard and aphlaston; on left, altar and ACKAΛ (Ascalon); in right field, dove. Courtesy of Heritage Auctions, Inc.
      • Figure 13. Marble statue of ‘the crouching Aphrodite’. Third century CE. Courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority. Photographer: Clara Amit.
  • 3.3. Derceto (Δερκετω) and Semiramis (Σεμίραμις) (figure 14)
    • Figure 14. Ashkelon coin. Antoninus Pius (138–161 CE). Year 151/152 CE. Semiramis, crescent on her forehead, holding dove and scepter. At her feet Derceto, half woman half fish holding cornucopiae. Courtesy of Heritage Auctions, Inc.
  • 3.4. Dove (figure 15)
    • Figure 15. Ashkelon coin (2nd century BCE). Aphrodite head to right wearing stephane and earring, hair in chignon, border of dots. On reverse, AΣ (Ascalon) above dove standing to left, border of dots. Courtesy of Heritage Auctions, Inc.
  • 3.5. Tyche/Fortuna/Isis (Ίσις) (figures 16–19)
    • Figure 16. Ashkelon coin. Municipal Coinage (81–96 CE). Turreted and veiled bust of Tyche to right. On reverse, prow of galley to left; above, AΣ (Ascalon). Courtesy of Heritage Auctions, Inc.
      • Figure 18. Ashkelon coin. Caracalla (212–217 CE). Year 215–217 CE. Isis bust to right, wearing hemhem crown and holding flail and scepter, upon three lions’ heads. Courtesy of Heritage Auctions, Inc.
      • Figure 17. Ashkelon coin. Domitian (81–96 CE). Year 94/95 CE. Bust of Tyche to right, veiled; AC (Ascalon). On reverse, War-galley. Courtesy of Heritage Auctions, Inc.
      • Figure 19. Ashkelon. Tyche/Fortuna/Isis relief from the Roman basilica. Second century CE. Courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority. Photographer: Simona Rodan.
  • 3.6. Poseidon (figure 20)
    • Figure 20. Ashkelon coin. Marcus Aurelius (139–161 CE). Year 158/159 CE. Poseidon standing left, right foot on a rock, holding dolphin and trident. Courtesy of Heritage Auctions, Inc.
  • 3.7. Heracles (Ήρακλῆς) (figure 21)
    • Figure 21. Ashkelon coin. Macrinus (217–218 CE). Herakles, naked, standing left, holding Nike/Victoria in right hand, club in left hand. Courtesy of Heritage Auctions, Inc.
  • 3.8. Hermes (Ερμής) (figure 22)
    • Figure 22. Hermes statue from Ashkelon. Roman period. Courtesy of Israel Antiquities Authority. Photographer: Clara Amit.
  • 3.9. The Dioscuri (Διόσκουροι)
  • 3.10. Pan (Παν) (figure 23)
    • Figure 23. Pan relief from Ashkelon. Roman period. Courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority. Photographer: Clara Amit.
  • 3.11. Phanebalos (Φανηβαλος) (figure 24)
    • Figure 24. Ashkelon coin. Antoninus Pius (138–161 CE). Year 158/159 CE. The war-deity Phanebalos standing left, raising harpe in right hand, holding shield and palm-branch in left. Courtesy of Heritage Auctions, Inc.
  • 3.12. Apollo (Άπόλλων)
  • 3.13. Asclepius (Άσκληπιός)
    • Figure 25. Ashkelon coin. Septimius Severus (193–211 CE). Temple with four doorways and ‘bottle-shaped’ columns. Photographer: Clara Amit.
• Gaza
  • 4.1. Introduction
  • 4.2. Dagon
  • 4.3. Marnas (Μαρνας)/Zeus Cretagenes (Ζευς Κρηταγενής)
    • 4.3.a. Marnas
    • 4.3.b. Marnas’s Spheres of Activity and the Nature of his Cult
    • 4.3.c. The Origins of Marnas (figure 26)
      • Figure 26. Statue of Zeus from Tel el-ʿAjul. Second century CE, in Istanbul Archaeological Museum. Drawing: Margalit Levitan.
    • 4.3.d. The Marneion (Temple of Marnas) (figure 27)
      • Figure 27. Gaza coin. Caracalla (212–217 CE). Temple showing two columns and pediment. Within Artemis on left drowing arrow from quiver on her shoulder and holding a bow. Marnas on right holding scepter. Courtesy of Münzen & Medaillen GmbH (DE).
  • 4.4. Artemis (Ἄρτεμις)/Britomartis (Βριτóμαρτις)
  • 4.5. Minos (Μίνως) (figure 28)
    • Figure 28. Gaza coin. Autonomous. Hadrian (117–138 CE). Year 131/132 CE. Minos in short chiton holding scepter. In field: MEINωC. On reverse: Holy tree. Courtesy of Münzen & Medaillen GmbH (DE).
  • 4.6. Io (Ἰω) (figure 29)
    • Figure 29. Gaza coin. Hadrian (117–138 CE). Year 132/133 CE. Io and Tyche standing facing each other, clasping hands. Courtesy of Heritage Auctions, Inc.
  • 4.7. Aphrodite
    • Figure 30. Gaza coin. Hadrian (117–138). Herakles stands facing forward, naked, his right hand resting on club and left holding lion skin. Courtesy of Münzen & Medaillen GmbH (DE).
      • Figure 31. Gaza coin. Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus (161–169). Apollo, naked, Chlamys hanging from left arm, standing left. Left resting on a long branch, pouring libation from a patera in right hand over flaming altar. Courtesy of Münzen & Medaillen G
  • 4.9. Apollo (figure 31)
  • 4.10.a. Tyche/Fortuna (figures 32–33)
    • Figure 32. Gaza coin. Antoninus Pius (138–161 CE). Year 148/149 CE. Bust of Tyche to right, with turreted crown, veiled; in right field, ΓΑΖΑ. Courtesy of Heritage Heritage Auctions, Inc.
      • Figure 33. Gaza coin. Hadrian (117–138 CE). Year 130/131 CE. Tyche/Fortuna wearing kalathos standing looking left, resting her right hand on scepter and in left hand holding cornucopia; beside her, heifer standing to left; in field, on left, ΓΑΖΑ; on righ
  • 4.10.b. The Tychaeion (Temple of Tyche)
  • 4.11. The Cults of Gaza and their Maritime Connections
• Rafiah
  • 5.1. Introduction
  • 5.2. Dionysus (Διόνυσος) (figures 34–35)
    • Figure 34. Rafiah coin. Septimius Severus (193–211 CE). Year 198/199 CE. Dionysus nude apart from chalmys falling from left shoulder, standing left emptying cup and holding thrysus; at his feet panther seated left, raising right forepaw and looking up. Co
      • Figure 35. Floor mosaic from Seikh Zuweid, of the third century CE. Dionysus and his retinue from the ‘Triumph of Dionysus’. Courtesy of the Ismailia Museum. Foto: project-mim.de@Mathias Salomon - All Rights Reserved 2009–2016.
  • 5.3. The Holy Trinity of Rafiah: Apollo, Artemis and Leto (Λητω) (figures 36–39)
    • Figure 36. Rafiah coin. Marcus Aurelius (161–180 CE). Year 177/178. Apollo, naked, his left hand on a tripod with a snake wound round it; in his right hand holding a branch. Courtesy of Münzen & Medaillen GmbH (DE).
      • Figure 37. Rafiah coin. Commodus (177–192 CE). Year 182/183 CE. Raven, symbolizing an oracle, standing right, wearing an Egyptian crown. Courtesy of Heritage Auctions, Inc.
      • Figure 38. Rafiah coin. Severus Alexander (232–235 CE). Year 230/231 CE. Artemis advancing right, holding bow and drawing arrow from quiver at her shoulder; before her, stag running right; IEPA PAΦΙΑ (Rafiah, holy) Courtesy of Heritage Auctions, Inc.
      • Figure 39. Rafiah coin. Philippus II Arabs. (244–247 CE). Leto sitting on a throne to left. Apollo stands in front of her. She stretches out her right hand and put it on Apollo’s head. In her left hand she holds a scepter. Artemis in short chiton behind
  • 5.4. Tyche/Fortuna (figure 40)
    • Figure 40. Rafiah coin. Commodus (177–192 CE). Year 177/178 CE. The city goddess standing to right. Courtesy of Heritage Auctions, Inc.
  • 5.5. Isis
  • 5.6. The Absence of the Sea and sea peoples’ Traditions from Rafiah’s Coins
• Summary
  • A. The Sea as a Formative Element in the Cults of Philistia’s Coastal Cities in the Roman period
  • B. Ethno-cultural Influences on the Cults of Philistia’s Coastal Cities in the Roman period
  • C. Political Conditions as a Formative Element in the Cults of Philistia’s Coastal Cities in the Roman period
• List of Figures
• Bibliography
  • A. Primary Sources and Commentaries
  • B. Modern Studies
• Abbreviations
• Back cover