This volume presents a long-overdue synthesis and update on West Mexican archaeology. Ancient West Mexico has often been portrayed as a 'marginal' or 'underdeveloped' area of Mesoamerica. This book shows that the opposite is true and that it played a critical role in the cultural and historical development of the Mesoamerican ecumene.

• Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright page
• Contents Page
• Contents
• List of Figures
  • Introduction
    • Figure 1. Map of Mesoamerica, indicating the territory occupied by the ecumene at the time of the Spanish invasion in the 16th century: (a) major physiographic forms and rivers; (b) native linguistic groups at contact period (adapted from Porter Weaver 19
    • Figure 2. West Mexico was integrated into the Mesoamerican ecumene in part because of the extensive trade routes that crossed the western areas, linking central and southern Mesoamerica to the northern frontier and the U.S. Southwest. Many trade goods wer
    • Figure 3. West Mexico in the Mesoamerican ecumene: (a) territorial expansion during the Preclassic period; arrows show the general line of Olmec trade routes. Olmec cultural influence was one of the critical factors in the establishment of the Mesoamerica
  • History of Archaeological Research in West Mexico
    • Figure 4. Map of Michoacán showing the major archaeological sites mentioned in the text, as well as the extent of the Tarascan Empire in the early 16th century (adapted from Pollard 2000: Figure 5.1).
    • Figure 5. Nicolás León during his work at the yácatas of Tzintzuntzan, in the Lake Pátzcuaro Basin, which took place around 1888 (after León 1903).
    • Figure 6. Francisco Plancarte conducted field work at Jacona, Michoacán, around 1890. This map of the ‘ancient city of Xucunan’ resulted from Plancarte’s survey of the area (adapted from León 1903: Plate 11a).
    • Figure 7. Hypothetical reconstruction of the yácatas of Tzintzuntzan, made by Nicolás León in the early 20th century (adapted from León 1903).
    • Figure 8. Several stone sculptures like this chacmool (a) and coyote altar or throne (b) were found near Ihuatzio, Lake Pátzcuaro, by Julián Bonavit around 1908 (adapted from Lombardo de Ruiz 1990: Figure: 121 [a], and Williams 1992: Figure 180 [b]).
    • Figure 9. Juan Palacios made a survey of the archaeological zone of Chupícuaro, Guanajuato, where he collected objects made of fired clay, like this vessel with geometric decoration (adapted from Mena and Aguirre 1927).
    • Figure 10. Map of the excavations at the Jiquilpan air field, conducted by Eduardo Noguera in the early 1940s (adapted from Noguera 1944: Plano IV).
    • Figure 11. Pottery bowls with tripod ‘rattle’ supports, of the Chila Polychrome ware. They were found by Isabel Kelly near Apatzingán, in the tierra caliente or ‘hot lands’ of Michoacán (adapted from Kelly 1947: Figure 16 a-b).
    • Figure 12a. Map showing the major archaeological sites in Jalisco, Colima and Nayarit (prepared by Eduardo Williams).
    • Figure 12b. Map of the Sinaloa and Nayarit coast, showing major archaeological sites in the approximate area covered by the ‘Aztatlán tradition’ (adapted from Scott and Foster 2000: Figure 8.1).
    • Figure 13. Hollow clay anthropomorphic figure found by Adela Breton in the mound of Guadalupe, near Etzatlán, Jalisco. Breton was a skilled artist as well as a keen explorer of Mexican antiquities (adapted from Giles and Stuart 1989: Figure 32).
    • Figure 14. Clay vessel with spout and handle, found by Carl Lumholtz in Tuxpan, Jalisco, around the turn of the 20th century. This pottery type would later be identified as proof of Tarascan presence in the lake region of Jalisco (adapted from Lumholtz 19
    • Figure 15. Round structure excavated by Leon Diguet at Ixtlán, Nayarit, around 1900 (adapted from Diguet 1992b: Figure 1).
    • Figure 16. Ancient stairway excavated by Leon Diguet (a), and anthropomorphic stone sculpture found by Diguet around 1900 (b) in Ixtlán, Nayarit (adapted from Diguet 1992b: Figures 2 and 4).
    • Figure 17. Isabel Kelly divided West Mexico into several ‘ceramic provinces’ that in her view pertained to cultural areas characterized by distinct pottery styles and attributes (adapted from Kelly 1948: p. IX).
    • Figure 18. Pottery vessels pertaining to the Aztatlán complex of Sinaloa (adapted from Meighan 1971: Figures 7-8).
    • Figure 19. Drawing of the shaft tomb explored by Corona Nuñez at El Arenal, Jalisco after it had been looted (lower left), and reconstruction drawings of other tombs from Jalisco and Nayarit (adapted from Arqueología Mexicana 58, p. 24).
    • Figure 20. Peter Furst suggested that ethnographic data on shamanism could be used in the interpretation of the pre-Hispanic ceramic figures found in the shaft tombs of West Mexico, like these two horned figures from Colima (photos courtesy of Hasso von W
    • Figure 21. Pottery figurines were quite numerous at the Morett site in Colima. Many specimens were found within burials, like these four figurines pertaining to the type 1A (courtesy of Clement Meighan).
    • Figure 22. The skeletons found in the Tizapán (Jalisco) cemetery were in a flexed and sitting position in small, tight-fitting grave pits. It is likely that the corpses were often tightly wrapped in some fashion prior to interment (adapted from Meighan an
    • Figure 23. These clay objects, probable fishnet sinkers, offer a glimpse into the subsistence activities of the ancient dwellers of the Lake Chapala Basin (adapted from Bond 1971: Figure 24).
    • Figure 24. The ancient aquatic lifeway included hunting activities, as suggested by the projectile points found in the Lake Chapala Basin (A-Q). Also indicative of aquatic subsistence activities are the ‘drill’ (R) and scrapers (S-U) found in many sites w
    • Figure 25. These stone ‘choppers’ and scrapers may have been part of the assemblage linked to the aquatic lifeway. The possible uses included manufacture activities such as making tools out of bone, wood, skins, and aquatic plants (reeds and rushes), amon
    • Figure 26. These clay spindle whorls suggest that spinning (probably cultivated cotton) was a common domestic activity in the pre-Hispanic communities scattered throughout the Lake Chapala Basin (adapted from Bond 1971: Figure 31).
    • Figure 27. Anthropomorphic figures found by Betty Bell in Cerro Encantado, Jalisco. These were the first of the famous West Mexican large ‘horned figurines’ ever to come from a controlled excavation (after Bell 1974b: Figure 5).
    • Figure 28. Stone slab with carved Tlaloc figure, found by Glynn Williams in the Jalisco Highlands (adapted from Williams 1974: Figure 12; scale in centimeters).
    • Figure 29. Map showing the general research area and some of the sites covered by the Jalisco Highlands archaeological project, carried out by Lorenza López and her associates in 1990 and 1991 (after López et al. 1994: Figure 1).
    • Figure 30. Map showing the major archaeological sites in the Jalisco Highlands study area, including modern settlements, rivers, and other features (after López et al. 1994: Figure 2).
    • Figure 31. Many archaeological sites were discovered in the Jalisco Highlands, including the ones shown here: Tlacuitapan (a); Mesita de Santa Teresa (b); and, La Mina (c) (after López et al. 1994: Figure 3).
    • Figure 32. Many different types of sites were reported in the Jalisco Highlands research area, including platforms like the one in Varas Dulces (a), and features such as mounds, walls, and burial areas, as in Los Cuartos (b) (after López et al. 1994: Figu
    • Figure 33. The Spanish conquest of Jalisco is represented in the Lienzo de Tlaxcala, a 16th century Colonial document. This figure shows a battle between the Spaniards and the Tecuexe Indians of central-northern Jalisco (adapted from Baus 1985: Figure 3.2
  • First Inhabitants and Early Cultural Development
    • Figure 34. West Mexico spans several physiographic settings, including a good number of diverse ecological niches. This accounts for the wide variety of cultural manifestations in the area (map by Eduardo Williams).
    • Figure 35. Partial map of West Mexico, showing the area covered by lake basins during the 16th century, and some archaeological sites (of different periods) associated to the basins: (1) Capacha; (2) Chupícuaro; (3) El Opeño; (4) Ihuatzio; (5) Loma Alta;
    • Figure 36. The Lake Pátzcuaro Basin is one of the most important regions for our historical reconstruction of ancient culture in West Mexico, since it was the former seat of the Tarascan Empire. This map shows the extent of the lake in the Protohistoric p
    • Figure 37. Lake Cuitzeo was one of the largest bodies of water in West Mexico, but its volume has been greatly diminished in recent times. This lake basin is rich in natural resources such as obsidian, salt, saltpeter, and lime, as well as reeds, rushes,
    • Figure 38a. The hunters of the Paleoindian period had a highly efficient stone tool assemblage, including fluted projectile points like the ones shown here, which were used to hunt game (adapted from Aveleyra 1964: Figure 3).
    • Figure 38b. The projectile points of the Clovis (left) and Folsom (right) types are among the earliest in the New World, like these items found in the US Southwest (adapted from Plog 1997: Figure 30).
    • Figure 39. In the Archaic period hunters pursued primarily smaller species, using snares made of cordage of yucca and other plant fibers. They also used nets to catch fish (adapted from Weitlaner 1977: Figures 40 and 41).
    • Figure 40. Changing trends in the importance of the principal sources of food in the Tehuacan Valley archaeological sequence, from Paleoindian to Conquest times (adapted from MacNeish 1967: Figure 186).
    • Figure 41. Lake Chalco once covered an area of some 110 km2 in the southeastern depression of the Basin of Mexico. The archaeological phase called Playa (ca. 6000-5300 BC) coincides with an exceptional flourishing of the biota in the southern part of the
    • Figure 42. These stone projectile points found in the Lake Zacoalco-Sayula area constitute a clear evidence of pre-ceramic occupation in this part of West Mexico (after Hardy 1994).
    • Figure 43. The oldest archaeological manifestation identified to date in the Marismas Nacionales area of coastal Nayarit is a large shell mound called El Calón, which may date to the late Archaic period (adapted from Foster and Scott 2017a: Figure 5.2).
    • Figure 44. Pebbles were used by the Seri Indians of Sonora, Northern Mexico, to break or crush shells and bones, to skin large game animals, to cut tendons and shatter or splinter bones, to grind or pulverize seeds, to dig up reeds, to cut down trees and
    • Figure 45. Cobblestones were used as tools by the Seri Indians, usually with hardly any modification. Some stones were still in use when McGee collected them in the field (in the late 19th century). Wear patterns may suggest the function of similar artifa
    • Figure 46. This stone functioned as an anvil to process or pulverize substances such as minerals and pigments; (a) front, (b) side (after McGee 1980: Plates XXXIV and XXXV).
    • Figure 47. Stone querns like this one were used by the Seris to grind plant material such as wild seeds used as food (after McGee 1980: Plate XXXIX).
  • The Formative Period (ca. 1500 BC-AD 300)
    • Figure 48. The Olmec style spread throughout a good part of the Mesoamerican ecumene, following the Olmec’s quest for natural resources unavailable in their tropical homeland in the Gulf of Mexico (adapted from Diehl 2004: Figure 1).
    • Figure 49. These tombs at El Opeño, Michoacán, could be the forerunners of the shaft tombs that are so characteristic of West Mexico. The Opeño tombs might also have functioned as family crypts, since they housed multiple burials (after Oliveros 2004: Fig
    • Figure 50. The pottery vessels from El Opeño include pots decorated with linear incisions, punching and appliqué, quite similar to the ones found at Tlatilco in the Basin of Mexico, a site more or less contemporaneous with El Opeño (after Oliveros 2004: F
    • Figure 51a. Figurines are an important part of the ceramic assemblage found at El Opeño. Anthropomorphic figurines have a strong resemblance to Formative types from the Basin of Mexico, and include ball players (a) and figures who may represent personages
    • Figure 51b. Figurines are an important part of the ceramic assemblage found at El Opeño. Anthropomorphic figurines have a strong resemblance to Formative types from the Basin of Mexico, and include ball players (a) and figures who may represent personages
    • Figure 52. Deer bones were modified into needles and awls, which may have been used for knitting fishnets or other textiles, or for weaving reed baskets, among many other tasks (adapted from Oliveros 2004: Figures 55 and 57).
    • Figure 53. Capacha was an important archaeological culture of West Mexico during the Middle Formative period. It originated in the state of Colima with possible influence from other areas of Mesoamerica and South America, as seen in its ceramic tradition
    • Figure 54. Capacha’s peculiar pots with triple tubes are unique, and the decorations with incised ‘sunbursts’ are also highly distinctive (a: adapted from Mountjoy 1994a; b: adapted from Kelly 1980: Figure 24).
    • Figure 55. El Pantano, a Middle Formative site on the coast of Jalisco, holds much information about pre-Hispanic burial customs and many other aspects of native life (after Mountjoy 2012: Figure 28).
    • Figure 56. The tombs from the El Pantano and the surrounding area of the Mascota Valley (Jalisco) are among the very few funerary contexts excavated in situ in West Mexico, like this burial with offerings consisting of pots and figurines (after Mountjoy 2
    • Figure 57. The human remains in the tombs at El Pantano have been found in different conditions of articulation. In this case one individual is in anatomical position, while another has been pushed to one side (after Mountjoy 2012: Figure 126).
    • Figure 58. In some funerary chambers all the burials were found disarticulated, wrapped in bundle-like packages with offerings (after Mountjoy 2012: Figure 223).
    • Figure 59. Most burials from the Middle Formative in the Mascota Valley had offerings such as ceramic vessels (a) and figurines (b) (courtesy of Joseph Mountjoy).
    • Figure 60. The Teuchitlán people built monumental precincts, which are usually associated with round platforms or mounds, arranged in a circular pattern (after Weigand 2011a: Figure 1).
    • Figure 61. The Teuchitlán tradition (Jalisco, Colima, and Nayarit) is characterized by monumental buildings, such as these architectural circles with high central mounds (adapted from Weigand and Beekman 1998: Figure 22).
    • Figure 62. The Teuchitlán tradition had architectural complexes with platforms, houses and mounds in a circular pattern, which may have served as elite residences or public spaces, as shown in this ceramic sculpture (courtesy of Hasso von Winning).
    • Figure 63. The ceramic figures found in Late Formative tombs of the Teuchitlán tradition are a unique source of information about the ball game in ancient West Mexico (courtesy of Hasso von Winning).
    • Figure 64. Many ball courts have been found in the area of the Teuchitlán tradition (Jalisco, Colima, and Nayarit). Some ball courts are of monumental proportions, like the example shown here from Santa Quiteria, Mesa Alta complex, Jalisco (courtesy of Ph
    • Figure 65. Huitzilapa was a ceremonial center pertaining to the Teuchitlán tradition during the Late Formative period (ca. AD 1-300). Huitzilapa had plazas, mounds, ball courts, terraces, residential units, and circular complexes (after Ramos and López 19
    • Figure 66a. Excavations at Huitzilapa in 1993 uncovered one of the most important shaft tombs ever found in West Mexico, with the burials and offerings still in situ at the time of excavation (after Ramos and López 1995).
    • Figure 66b. The two burial chambers at Huitzilapa contained six individuals –three in each chamber– who had been buried with rich offerings (after Ramos and López 1995).
    • Figure 67. The shaft tomb of Huitzilapa, Jalisco, is one of the few examples of the funerary customs of the Teuchitlán tradition, found by archaeologists in pristine condition (after López and Ramos 1996).
    • Figure 68. The offerings deposited with the dead in the Huitzilapa tomb included worked seashell objects (a-b) and painted conch shells (c), representing marine species imported from afar (after López 2004: Figures 1-3).
    • Figure 69. The funerary offerings in Huitzilapa included clay vessels decorated with geometric and zoomorphic designs (a). The two-headed snake (b) is also present in a bowl from the same geographical area (after López 2004: Figures 6 and 7).
    • Figure 70. The public rituals celebrated by the people of the Teuchitlán tradition may have included banquets. This ceramic sculpture from Jalisco shows high-status individuals with a bowl and a hollow tube for drinking (presumably pulque) (courtesy of Ha
    • Figure 71. This figure pertaining to the Teuchitlán tradition is holding a bowl and a gourd, probably used for drinking pulque or some other beverage (courtesy of Hasso von Winning).
    • Figure 72. The menu in Mesoamerican feasts usually included dog meat, like this Teuchitlán-tradition sculpture from Colima (courtesy of Hasso von Winning).
    • Figure 73. House floor at La Joyita, in the northwestern sector of the site of Los Guachimontones, during excavation (after Herrejón 2009: Figure 3).
    • Figure 74. The study of chemical traces (in this case phosphates) on the house floor at La Joyita revealed activity areas (after Herrejón 2009: Figure 7).
    • Figure 75. This house in the town of Santiago, in the Tomatlán River region of Jalisco, is a rare example of vernacular architecture, with thatched roof and decoration in high relief on the façade (courtesy of Joseph Mountjoy).
    • Figure 76. The Chupícuaro ceramic tradition includes hollow anthropomorphic figures decorated with geometric designs (Museo Michoacano, Morelia, Mich.).
    • Figure 77. Chupícuaro pottery vessel with stirrup-spout, probably found as offering in a funerary context (Museo Michoacano, Morelia, Mich.).
    • Figure 78. The Chupícuaro culture had connections with the Basin of Mexico, as shown by these figurines (of the H-4 type) found in Cuicuilco (adapted from Ramírez 2018: p. 43).
    • Figure 79. Figurines of the slant-eyed type are common in the Chupícuaro area (adapted from Frierman 1969: Figures 395, 396, 398).
    • Figure 80. Excavations in the Chupícuaro area found tombs with a shaft and steps, reminiscent of tombs in other parts of West Mexico (after Faugere and Darras 2016: Figure 10).
    • Figure 81. The aquatic environment that dominated the landscape of El Bajío is seen in this illustration from the mid-16th century, called Pintura de Celaya y Acámbaro (after Acuña 1987: Plate 1).
    • Figure 82. Map of San Miguel Maravatío, Michoacán (1727), showing a river, several canals, water wells, marshes, and many orchards and other green areas. This aquatic landscape was typical of the Lerma River Basin and surrounding areas during pre-Hispanic
    • Figure 83. The material culture of Tlatilco included a rich repertoire of utilitarian and ritual ceramic vessels during the Middle-Formative period (adapted from Coe 1984a: Figure 23).
    • Figure 84. Some of the Tlatilco clay sculptures portray supernatural beings, like this mask with skeletal attributes (a), while others show aspects of ritual or ceremonial life, like this dancer (b) (after Gómez et al. 1985: figures on pp. 26 and 28).
    • Figure 85. The Tlatilco burials were richly furnished with effigy figurines that may have been associated with a fertility cult or other magical-religious beliefs, like this ball player (b) and shaman (c) (adapted from Piña Chan 1982: figures on p. 147).
    • Figure 86. Many of the Mesoamerican artistic traditions can be traced to the Olmecs of the Middle Formative period, who produced jade masks like these three items (a-c) in the National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico City. The Olmec tradition included scul
    • Figure 87. These red-on-brown vessels pertaining to the Tlatilco style come from the state of Morelos. They show some traits found in central Mexico and West Mexico in the Middle Formative period (after Grove 2009: Figure 4).
    • Figure 88. Tools made of modified deer bone and antlers are abundant among the items found at Terremote-Tlaltenco. Some of these tools were probably used in basket making, or for weaving fishnets, preparing animal skins and making obsidian tools (after Se
  • The Classic Period (ca. AD 250/300-900)
    • Figure 89. West Mexico was part of the Mesoamerican ecumene from the Formative period (ca. 1200 BC-AD 300) to the Classic (ca. AD 250-900) and Postclassic (ca. AD 900-1520) (map by Eduardo Williams).
    • Figure 90. The talud-tablero was a common architectural feature of the Classic period (and later), as seen in this Teotihuacan building (a). This architectural feature required a complex construction method (b) (adapted from Bernal 1963: Plates 3 and 4).
    • Figure 91. The apartment compound is one of the most remarkable characteristics of Classic-period Teotihuacan. It is an example of urban life never before known in Mesoamerica (elevation of the Zacuala apartment compound; adapted from Pasztory 1997: Figur
    • Figure 92. Each family in Teotihuacan’s apartment compounds had a specific area for cooking, eating, and also for conducting craft activities, as shown in this hypothetical reconstruction (courtesy of Linda Manzanilla).
    • Figure 93. During the Early Classic period the elites at Teotihuacan lived in sumptuous palaces, where domestic, political, and religious aspects of life were combined, as seen in this reconstruction of the Quetzalpapalotl Palace (adapted from Acosta 1964
    • Figure 94. Common Teotihuacan pottery forms: (a) censer (bowl with pedestal and conical top); (b) cylindrical vase with low-relief decoration; (c) cylindrical tripod vase with low-relief decoration; (d) tripod vase with al fresco paint decoration; (e) pot
    • Figure 95. Teotihuacan articulated figurines may have been used in domestic rituals (after Sejourné 1966: Plate 56).
    • Figure 96. These Michoacán-style figurines are among the elements that share a West Mexican heritage in Teotihuacan (adapted from Gómez Chávez and Gazzola 2007: Photo 9).
    • Figure 97. Anthropomorphic urns made of clay were used for ritual purposes by the peoples of ancient Oaxaca. They have been found in many cases as part of funerary assemblages, including some (similar to the piece shown here) in the Oaxaca barrio at Teoti
    • Figure 98. This unique piece made of jade and shell is a representation of a bat, found at Monte Albán, in the Oaxaca Valley. In the ancient Mesoamerican worldview bats had magical and religious connotations, since they were linked to the nocturnal world
    • Figure 99. The Lápida de Bazán from Monte Albán shows an ambassador from Teotihuacan holding an incense pouch (left), and a Zapotec personage dressed as a feline with an elaborate headdress (right) (height: 47 cm) (after Caso and Bernal 1952: Figure 78).
    • Figure 100. Mound IV is a great pyramidal structure on the west end of Monte Albán’s Great Plaza. It shows a modified version of the talud-tablero architectural decoration (after Fahmel Beyer 1991: Figure 55).
    • Figure 101. Some Classic-period ceramic styles from Monte Albán (phase III-A) show a clear relationship with Teotihuacan (adapted from Caso et al. 1967: Figures 263, 272, 275, 282, 289).
    • Figure 102. People from Teotihuacan arrived at El Tajín (Veracruz) after the collapse of their great city. Their imprint includes the talud-tablero building style, although the general style of construction at El Tajín is different from the Teotihuacan pr
    • Figure 103. This Tlaloc figure carved on a stela from Tikal is an example of the Teotihuacan style present in the Petén area of Guatemala (adapted from Coe 1984b: Figure 43).
    • Figure 104. This stepped temple platform of the Esperanza phase (ca. AD 300-600) at Kaminaljuyú (Guatemala) shows the typical Teotihuacan talud-tablero motif. This is an example of a mixed Maya- central Mexican architectural tradition (adapted from Kidder
    • Figure 105. Some of the most elaborate ceramic vessels found at Kaminaljuyú were imported from Teotihuacan. Here we see several motifs painted on Teotihuacan and Kaminaljuyú vessels (adapted from Kidder et al. 1946: Figure 100).
    • Figure 106a. This tripod vase of Teotihuacan style shows decorations in a typical Maya style. Teotihuacan culture was present in many regions of the Maya area, as we can see in several artistic media, including fine ceramics (after López 2009: figure on p
    • Figure 106b. Cultural contact between Teotihuacan and the Maya area included the diffusion of artistic styles, such as these anthropomorphic figurines with miniature deities inside (after López 2009: figure on p. 155).
    • Figure 107. The ceramic tradition from the site of Las Lomas in the Lake Zacapu Basin shows great quality and technical skill in its manufacture, as well as a complex iconography (after Boehm 1994: figure on p. 281).
    • Figure 108. This vessel from Las Lomas contained ashes created by first cremating and then finely grinding bones. However, it is difficult to tell whether these remains are human or animal in origin (after Boehm 1994: Figure on p. 180).
    • Figure 109. Loma Alta had an important ceremonial and funeral role. Excavations at the northwestern sector of the site discovered a funerary complex pertaining to the Loma Alta phase (ca. 100 BC-AD 500). Numerous burials were laid down in the same general
    • Figure 110. Map of Lake Zacapu, showing the remnants of the lake, and several archaeological sites: Mich. 23 (El Palacio) on the western end; Mich 314 on the northwest, and Mich 313 on the north (adapted from Arnauld 1996: Figure 5).
    • Figure 111. The Loma Alta site was subjected to a general prospection based on magnetism and electrical resistivity. This resulted in a ‘magnetic map’ showing all the major architectonic features that lay underground (adapted from Carot and Fauvet 1996: F
    • Figure 112. The archaeological excavation of the areas of major building activity shown in the magnetic map of Loma Alta revealed a series of walls, stairs, and other features, apparently from the Postclassic period (after Carot and Fauvet 1996: Figures 7
    • Figure 113. The Classic period is represented in the Lake Cuitzeo Basin by pottery from Queréndaro, including figurines that may represent a cultural tradition with roots in the Formative period (after Boehm 1994: figure on p. 182).
    • Figure 114. Several sites in Michoacán show evidence of Teotihuacan contacts, for instance ceramics pertaining to the Thin Orange type, like these two vessels found near Morelia, Michoacán (after Boehm 1994: figure on p. 182).
    • Figure 115. Evidence of contacts between Teotihuacan and Michoacán includes stone sculptures, like this ‘fire god’ found near Morelia (Museo Michoacano, Morelia; photo by Eduardo Williams).
    • Figure 116. Tinganio is a major archaeological site located in the municipality of Tingambato, near Uruapan, Michoacán. Tinganio is in a strategic location between two ecological niches: the cooler highlands and the warmer lowlands. This map shows a fract
    • Figure 117. An architectural style was introduced into Tinganio that may be similar to Teotihuacan’s talud-tablero (after Piña Chan and Oi 1982: Figures 19-21).
    • Figure 118. The ceramic objects excavated at Tinganio include many different types of vessels with tall base and negative (i.e. resist) decoration (adapted from Piña Chan and Oi 1982: Figures 6 a-g).
    • Figure 119. One of the salient features of Plazuelas (Guanajuato) is an ‘elite area’ with several plazas and pyramids, as well as a ball-game court measuring 55 m long by 11 m wide. The ball court is associated with a series of terraces and living areas (
    • Figure 120. Many buildings at Plazuelas follow ‘foreign’ architectural traditions, including one variant of the talud-tablero that may be linked to central Mexico (after Castañeda 2007: Figure 27).
    • Figure 121. Some of the architectural decorations excavated at Plazuelas show a central-Mexican iconography, including a stone ball-court marker (a) and an almena (merlon) or frontal roof decoration (b) (after Castañeda 2007: Figures 9 and 34).
    • Figure 122. One of the sectors of Cañada de la Virgen (Guanajuato) that were studied and partially reconstructed is known as ‘Complex B’. It is an area of plazas, platforms, and other forms of elite architecture (after Zepeda 2007: Figure 9).
    • Figure 123. One of the major areas of Cañada de la Virgen is called ‘Complex A’, a sunken patio surrounded by platforms and a pyramidal structure of monumental proportions (after Zepeda 2007: Figure 15).
    • Figure 124. One of the most important natural features at Cañada de la Virgen is a pond, a natural formation that was modified in order to use it as a water reservoir (after Zepeda 2007: Figure 13).
    • Figure 125. Aerial view of the raised fields in the Lake Magdalena Basin, Jalisco. The construction and use of these earthworks coincide with the heyday of the Teuchitlán tradition, from the Late Formative to the Late Classic periods (after Stuart 2005: F
    • Figure 126. Hypothetical reconstruction of the Lake Magdalena raised fields, based on field data gathered by Phil Weigand in the early 1990s (adapted from Weigand 1996a: Figure 1).
    • Figure 127. This Teotihuacan-style pot may indicate cultural contact between Colima and the Basin of Mexico during the Classic period (two views, after Matos and Kelly 1974: Figures 1 and 2).
    • Figure 128. The Comala site, near Colima City, has the characteristic layout of the Teuchitlán tradition: a cluster of circular platforms with central mounds. Two of the architectural circles are of monumental proportions (adapted from Olay 2012: figure o
    • Figure 129. Shaft tombs were still being constructed in Colima during the Classic period. Objects found inside the tombs include a bat-shaped carved shell (a); a horned acrobat with phallic attributes (b); and a vessel with parrot features (c) (after De S
    • Figure 130. The tombs discovered at El Maizal, near Ixtlán in southern Nayarit, have a vertical pit or shaft and two chambers (adapted from Zepeda 1994: p. 73).
    • Figure 131. Reproduction of one of the few tombs excavated by archaeologists, rather than looters, in Nayarit. It shows the funerary assemblage found in situ (Museo de Tepic, Nayarit; after Zepeda 1994: p. 76).
    • Figure 132. Roll-out view of the decorative designs on the surface of a pseudo-cloisonné pottery vessel from the site of Estanzuela, near Guadalajara, Jalisco (adapted from Lumholtz 1986: Plate XIV).
    • Figure 133. Teotihuacan merchants followed several paths from the Basin of Mexico to other areas of Mesoamerica: (1) San Juan del Río, Querétaro; (2) El Bajío lowlands; (3) Lake Cuitzeo Basin, Michoacán; (4) Colima; (5) Alta Vista, Zacatecas; (6) La Quema
    • Figure 134. Teotihuacan-style murals found at El Rosario, a Classic-period site in the Valley of San Juan del Río, Querétaro (after Saint-Charles et al. 2010: Figures between pp. 18 and 19).
    • Figure 135. The murals at El Rosario still retain much of the original colors many centuries after being painted, presumably by people from Teotihuacan (after Saint-Charles et al. 2010: figure on cover).
    • Figure 136. Another mural at El Rosario, showing Teotihuacan iconography (after Saint-Charles et al. 2010: Figure between pp. 18 and 19).
    • Figure 137. The stela from San Miguel Totolapan (in the Tierra Caliente region of Guerrero) has attributes linked to Tlaloc (a). The iconography may be interpreted as ‘Teotihuacanoid’, but the style corresponds to a local stone-working tradition (adapted
    • Figure 138. Stone disk with a relief representing a Mesoamerican deity (probably Tlaloc), from the Costa Grande region of Guerrero (adapted from Manzanilla 2008: Figure 62).
    • Figure 139. The Malinaltepec mask is one of the best-known objects related to Teotihuacan culture. The mask is executed in a purely Teotihuacan style, covered by turquoise and shell. It was found in the state of Guerrero (copyright © Arqueología Mexicana/
    • Figure 140. Necklace with zoomorphic pectoral made of green stone (probably turquoise) from Michoacán. The use of this type of adornment was reserved for the elite (after Boehm 1994: Figure on p. 209).
    • Figure 141. Necklace and earrings of turquoise, the latter with gold rings (Museo Michoacano, Morelia).
    • Figure 142. Necklace and pendant made of green stone (with an attached gold piece), found in Michoacán. Green stones and gold were the primary markers of elite society in Postclassic Mesoamerica (after Boehm 1994: Figure on p. 215).
  • The Postclassic Period (ca. AD 900-1521)
    • Figure 143. Map of Early Postclassic Mesoamerica (ca. AD 900-1200) showing the northern Mesoamerican frontier and major sites (adapted from Evans 2004a: Figure 15.1).
    • Figure 144. Map of the Tula Grande monumental precinct, showing the major buildings: Pyramid C (A); Pyramyd B (B); Hall of Columns (C); Palacio Quemado (burned palace) (D); and the possible tzompantli or skull rack (E) (adapted from Healan 2011b: Figure
    • Figure 145. The Hall of Columns in the Palacio Quemado at Tula pertains to a diagnostic Toltec architectural style that was copied throughout Postclassic Mesoamerica (photo courtesy of Dan Healan).
    • Figure 146. Square columns on Pyramid C, showing the Toltec method of construction: a core of small stones covered by a surface of plaster, which may have been painted (photo courtesy of Dan Healan).
    • Figure 147. The Toltecs were famous for their art and architecture among their contemporaries and even later cultures, such as the Aztecs. The Atlantes stand guard atop Pyramid B at Tula (photo courtesy of Dan Healan).
    • Figure 148. Toltec sculpture included low-relief designs such as these warriors and ‘dart bundles’ carved on a column on the summit of Pyramid B (adapted from Diehl 1983: Figure 13), and ‘atlantean’ figures that were richly decorated with different colors
    • Figure 149a. This tzompantli or skull rack is a platform with sculpted stacks of human crania found in the Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital. The tzompantli formed part of the cultural legacy handed down to the Aztecs from the Toltecs (after
    • Figure 149b. Detail of the human skulls sculpted on the Aztec tzompantli (after Matos 1981: figure on back cover).
    • Figure 150. Stone slab with skull and crossed bones from Tula. Death imagery was common in Toltec and other Postclassic art styles (after de la Fuente et al., 1988: Figure 88 e).
    • Figure 151. The chacmool is a characteristic figure in the Toltec artistic tradition, like this sculpture from Tula’s Palacio Quemado; (a) front view; (b) view from above (after de la Fuente et al., 1988: 31, 31a).
    • Figure 152. Stone slab with a walking coyote from Tula (after de la Fuente et al., 1988: Figure 96).
    • Figure 153. Map of Chingú, a Classic-period site in the Tula region, culturally-linked to the Teotihuacan state (adapted from Díaz 1980: Figure 7).
    • Figure 154. Map showing the location of Tula Grande and Tula Chico, as well as the limits of the urban settlement at Tula (broken line), as revealed by surface survey. Triangles indicate the major residential structures exposed by excavation (after Healan
    • Figure 155. Toltec ceramics included vessels like these Coyotlatelco bowls (a-c), and Mazapa Red on Buff bowls (d-e) decorated with wavy lines, which are characteristic of the Early Postclassic Toltec period (adapted from Diehl 1983: Figures 7 and 8, obje
    • Figure 156. The Toltec ceramic assemblage included several wares for domestic use, such as food storage, preparation and serving (adapted from Matos 1974: Figure 23).
    • Figure 157. Toltec trade wares: Fine Orange (left and center) and Plumbate effigy vessel (after Fahmel Beyer 1988: figure on cover).
    • Figure 158. The Toltec elite sought vessels like this Plumbate zoomorphic pot found in the Tula area. Plumbate ceramics may have been produced in southern Mesoamerica (after Gómez et al. 1985: figure on p. 52).
    • Figure 159. Clay figurines were linked to the religious cult at Tula, following a widespread Mesoamerican tradition. This item is decorated with blue and red color, which may have ritual-symbolic implications (after Gómez et al. 1985: figure on p. 52).
    • Figure 160. Tula was a well-planned city; at its peak (during the 10th-11th centuries) it may have housed as many as 50,000 people. This topographic map shows the distribution of mounds of over one meter in height, and the monumental precincts of Tula Gra
    • Figure 161. Examples of residential structures at Tula that were identified as ‘house compounds’ (a, b, e) and ‘apartment compounds’ (c-d) after excavation (after Healan 2011b: Figure 9).
    • Figure 162. Architectural decoration showing a human reclining figure, from the northwest pyramid at Tula Chico (after Healan 2011b: Figure 12).
    • Figure 163. Fragments of stone sculptures found in situ on the stucco floor in front of a temple of the Prado phase, showing the features discussed in the text (after Healan 2011b: Figure 12).
    • Figure 164. The excavations at El Canal uncovered many stone foundations. House VII is in the foreground, with the Central Group Courtyard (with altar) in the background (photo courtesy of Dan Healan).
    • Figure 165. The Toltecs had trade networks throughout Mesoamerica, from the Basin of Mexico to the Gulf of Mexico, West Mexico, the northern frontier and the Maya area (adapted from Diehl 1983: Figure 31).
    • Figure 166. Reclining chacmool sculpture in El Castillo, Chichén Itzá. This figure has been interpreted as evidence of cultural influence from Toltec central Mexico in the Maya area (after Piña Chan 1980: Figure 56).
    • Figure 167. This jaguar sculpture painted in red may have functioned as a throne or altar at Chichén Itzá. Zoomorphic thrones may be linked to Toltec influence in the Maya area (after García and Cobos: figure on p. 139).
    • Figure 168. Temple of the Warriors (top) and Hall of Columns at Chichén Itzá, showing influence of the Toltec architectural style (after Piña Chan 1980: Figure 49).
    • Figure 169. Skull rack or tzompantli at Chichén Itzá; this building was probably used to display actual human skulls (after Piña Chan 1980: Figure 70).
    • Figure 170. Detail of the carved skulls that decorate the tzompantli at Chichén Itzá (after Piña Chan 1980: Figure 71).
    • Figure 171. Partial map of Alta Vista, Zacatecas, showing the main buildings, including the Hall of Columns (courtesy of Proyecto Arqueológico Alta Vista-Chalchihuites, Zacatecas, INAH).
    • Figure 172. The Hall of Columns at Alta Vista, Zacatecas, is a clear indication of Toltec influence in the northern frontier of Mesoamerica (after Kelley 1990:491).
    • Figure 173. Contour map of La Quemada, Zacatecas, showing major architectural features (including the Toltec-inspired Hall of Columns) and trash middens (adapted from Elliott 2007: Figure 5).
    • Figure 174. Graph showing tree-ring data on Mesoamerican climate change during the major cultural periods: Classic, Early Postclassic, Late Postclassic and Early Colonial. A major drought is noted in the month of June in each period, based on the Palmer D
    • Figure 175. Map showing the location of the major areas and archaeological sites where the Mixteca-Puebla stylistic tradition has been identified (adapted from Lind 1994: Figure 1).
    • Figure 176. Partial map of Mitla, showing the Northern Group and the Building of Columns. Note the modern streets surrounding the archaeological site (adapted from Robles and Juárez 2009: Figure 2).
    • Figure 177. Façade of the Building of Columns at Mitla. Note the ‘step-fret’ stone mosaics decorating the front of the building (after Marquina 1951: Photo 169).
    • Figure 178. Building of the Columns at Mitla. Detail of moldings and cut-out view indicating how the stone mosaics forming the step-fret decorations were laid out (adapted from Marquina 1951: Plate 111).
    • Figure 179. Reconstructive drawings of Mitla architecture: (1) North Building showing a tomb below the floor of the building; and (2) construction system of the North Building. Note the examples of step-fret mosaic designs that covered parts of the buildi
    • Figure 180. Plan and elevation of the Building of Columns at Mitla. Top: back façade; middle: plan view; bottom: main façade (adapted from Marquina 1951: Plate 108).
    • Figure 181. Mixtec tripod bowl with snake supports, found at Monte Albán (Phase V) (after Caso et al., 1967: Figure 376).
    • Figure 182. Mixtec polychrome tripod vessel with solar motif from Monte Albán (Phase V) (after Caso et al., 1967: Plate XXIX).
    • Figure 183. Fragments of Mixtec polychrome pottery from Monte Albán (Phase V). Figure ‘c’ shows a design representing clouds on the interior, and the step-fret motif on the exterior. Figure ‘d’ shows a dish fragment bearing a symbol of clouds; it probably
    • Figure 184. Mixtec clay censer from Monte Albán (Phase V). This type of vessel was used for burning incense in a ritual context (after Caso et al., 1967: Plate XXXI).
    • Figure 185. Mixtec clay vessels with feline claw from Etla, Oaxaca (Phase V) (after Caso et al., 1967: Plate XXXII).
    • Figure 186. Pectoral made of solid gold, found in Monte Albán’s Tomb 7. The main figure is wearing a tiger or serpent helmet, while the face is partially covered by a ‘mouth mask’ with skeletal attributes. The bottom of the item is formed by two squares,
    • Figure 187. Mixtec polychrome ceramics were in great demand throughout Postclassic Mesoamerica, such as this tripod dish decorated in the ‘codex style’ in the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City (after Gómez et al. 1985: figure on p. 84).
    • Figure 188. Some Mixtec codices are historical in content, narrating the life of one or several kings. In this case, the Codex Nuttall shows two bridal scenes: at left the couple is covered by a mantle, while the scene at right shows a lord and lady with
    • Figure 189. The Codex Borgia is an example of the Mixteca-Puebla artistic tradition. This page shows a dual representation of Mictlantecuhtli, the god of death (left) and Quetzalcoatl, the god of wind and life. Quetzalcoatl was one of the iconographic tra
    • Figure 190. Partial map of the Tututepec (Oaxaca) archaeological site showing residences ‘A’ and ‘C’ (adapted from Levine 2007: Figure 3).
    • Figure 191. Map showing the territory under the control of the Tututepec kingdom in southern Oaxaca (adapted from Levine 2017: Figure 35.1).
    • Figure 192. Front and back views of ‘Monument 6’, a monolith found in a high-status residential sector at Tututepec, Oaxaca (adapted from Joyce et al., 2004: Figure 11).
    • Figure 193. The Great Pyramid at Cholula, Puebla, is the monument of greatest dimensions in all of Mesoamerica, if not the New World. It originally pertained to the Classic period, but was probably in ruins by the time of the Spanish Conquest (adapted fro
    • Figure 194. Plan of the Great Pyramid at Cholula showing the major archaeological features (adapted from McCafferty 2001: Figure 1.2).
    • Figure 195a. Ceramic markers of the Postclassic period at Cholula. A: Cholulteca II; B-D: Cholulteca III; E and F: Cholulteca I (adapted from Muller 1970: Figure 25).
    • Figure 195b. Ceramic markers of the Postclassic period at Cholula. A-C: Cholulteca III; D and E: Cholulteca II; F: Cholulteca I (adapted from Muller 1970: Figure 26).
    • Figure 196. Two vessels of the ‘Cholulteca Codex’ style, from Cholula, Puebla (photo courtesy of Hasso von Winning).
    • Figure 197. Detail of the Late Postclassic murals at Tizatlán, Tlaxcala, depicting Tezcatlipoca, the god of the night sky. The style is Mixteca-Puebla, while the subject matter pertains to the Mesoamerican iconographic tradition (after Caso 1927: Plate I)
    • Figure 198. The Mixteca-Puebla artistic tradition included fine textiles, like the dresses worn by female members of the Mixtec elite portrayed in the Codex Nuttall (adapted from Nuttall 1975, pp. 81-82).
    • Figure 199. Very few examples of pre-Hispanic textiles have survived in the archaeological record, so we have to rely on indirect evidence, like these decorated spindle whorls used for spinning cotton thread (adapted from McCafferty and McCafferty 2019: F
    • Figure 200. The Mixteca-Puebla tradition was inspired by elite pottery such as this Mixtec miniature polychrome vessel with a hummingbird on the rim (Museo Nacional de Antropología, Mexico City, after Gómez et al. 1985: figure on p. 79).
    • Figure 201. The distribution of the Aztatlán tradition in western and northwestern Mexico reached to the northern limits of the ecumene (adapted from Foster 1999: Figure 11.1).
    • Figure 202. Excavations at Urichu, Lake Pátzcuaro Basin, during 1994. At the front-left is an excavated tomb (see next figure); at the back is a floor associated with the Postclassic occupation (after Pollard 1996: Figure 4).
    • Figure 203. Tomb excavated by Helen Pollard at Urichu, Lake Pátzcuaro Basin, showing the remains of several individuals and the associated offerings (the squares measure 2 x 2 m) (adapted from Pollard 1996: Figure 5).
    • Figure 204. Map of the Lake Pátzcuaro Basin showing the theoretical territories of each community during the Early Postclassic period (adapted from Pollard 1995: Figure 1).
    • Figure 205. Map of the Lake Pátzcuaro Basin showing the available farmland during the Early Postclassic (low lake level) (adapted from Pollard 1995: Figure 2).
    • Figure 206. Map of the Lake Pátzcuaro Basin showing the available farmland during the Early Postclassic (high lake level) (adapted from Pollard 1995: Figure 7).
    • Figure 207. The Petámuti or high priest of the Tarascans addressing the nobles at Tzintzuntzan. He is shown with a gourd on his back, bronze or gold tweezers on the chest, and a staff or spear in his hands (after the Relación de Michoacán; Alcalá 2008: fi
    • Figure 208. Artifacts made of animal bone probably used for weaving baskets, producing textiles or similar tasks in the Lake Sayula Basin (courtesy of Ericka Blanco).
    • Figure 209. These atlatl grips made of shell may represent hunting activities in the Lake Sayula Basin (courtesy of Ericka Blanco).
    • Figure 210. Shell fragments excavated at La Peña in the Lake Sayula Basin suggest that shell-working was one of the crafts that thrived here during the Aztatlán horizon (after Ramírez et al., 2005: Figure 10).
    • Figure 211. This bone artifact from the Lake Sayula Basin may have been used as a ‘batten’; that is, a weaving tool designed to push the weft yarn securely into place while using the back-strap loom (courtesy of Ericka Blanco).
    • Figure 212. These artifacts made of animal bone were likely used to weave cotton textiles in the Lake Sayula Basin (courtesy of Ericka Blanco).
    • Figure 213. Cross-section of the Lake Sayula Basin, indicating the different ecological zones and their natural resources (adapted from Valdez 1998: Figure 4).
    • Figure 214. Earth mound covered with potsherds, or tepalcatera, and five structures probably linked to salt production at Cerritos Colorados, Lake Sayula Basin (after Valdez et al. 1996b: Figure 6).
    • Figure 215. Combustion structure probably used for producing salt (boiling brine) at Cerritos Colorados, Lake Sayula Basin (after Valdez et al., 1996b: Figure 6).
    • Figure 216. Salt-making pots excavated by Carl Lumholtz in the late 19th century near the town of El Reparo, to the south of the Lake Sayula Basin (adapted from Lumholtz 1986:315).
    • Figure 217. Salt-making pots from the Lake Sayula Basin; (a-k): hemispheric bowls with red lines: (l-o): Sayula salt pans (adapted from Liot 2005: Figure 83).
    • Figure 218. Pre-Hispanic features (combustion pits with pottery bowls) probably used for making salt (boiling brine) in the Lake Sayula Basin (adapted from Liot 2000: Figure 83).
    • Figure 219. Postclassic-period burial with flexed arms and legs from the site of San Juan Atoyac, in the Lake Sayula Basin (after Acosta 1994: Figure 1).
    • Figure 220. Tarascan-style vessels with spout and ‘stirrup’ handle, found as burial offerings in the Lake Sayula Basin (after Valdez and Liot 1994: figures on p. 293).
    • Figure 221. La Campana (Colima) has many examples of monumental architecture, like this stairway with a sculpture in the shape of a rattlesnake tail in front of the building (copyright © Arqueología Mexicana/Editorial Raíces, Mexico City; used with permis
    • Figure 222. La Campana persisted as a major center from Classic to Postclassic times. Here the main pyramid is shown with the still-active Colima volcano in the background (after Jarquín 2002).
    • Figure 223. El Chanal was a major site during the Postclassic period in northeastern Colima with many monumental buildings and plazas (after Olay 2005: Figure 3).
    • Figure 224. Hypothetical reconstruction of the El Chanal settlement (partial view). The structures at El Chanal included mounds, contention walls, and open spaces like patios or plazas (adapted from Olay 2004a: Figure 23).
    • Figure 225. Bone tools from El Chanal, Colima, probably linked to textile production, working skins, or some other activity (after Olay 2004: Figure SF 86 b).
    • Figure 226. Tlaloc faces sculpted in stone from El Chanal. During the Early Postclassic period El Chanal received cultural influences from central Mexico, like these rain-deity representations (a: copyright © Arqueología Mexicana/Editorial Raíces, Mexico
    • Figure 227. Female figure from El Chanal, Colima (height: 74.3 cm; width: 42 cm; copyright © Arqueología Mexicana/Editorial Raíces, Mexico City; reproduced with permission).
    • Figure 228. Two clay censers from El Chanal, Colima, with eagle features (a) and possible Tlaloc features (b) (after Santiago and Fuentes 1996: figures on pp. 87 and 68).
    • Figure 229. Anthropomorphic figure from El Chanal, Colima seated on an equipal (ca. 70 cm high). (Courtesy of Hasso von Winning).
    • Figure 230. Motifs sculpted on the El Chanal ‘glyphic stairway’ include Mesoamerican deities such as Tlaloc (4) and Ehécatl (7) (after Rosado 1948: Figure X).
    • Figure 231. Round structure at Ixtlán, Nayarit. The shape of the building may be linked to the cult of Ehécatl, the Mesoamerican wind god (after Zepeda 1994: Figure on cover).
    • Figure 232. Archaeological site of Los Toriles, located in Ixtlán del Río, Nayarit (adapted from Zepeda 1994:42).
    • Figure 233. Details of the main sector at the archaeological site of Los Toriles. Key: (1) Round temple dedicated to Ehécatl-Quetzalcoatl; (2) Palace of Reliefs; (3) Central altar, on the main plaza; (4) Palace of Columns; (5) Palace of the Hearths; (6) P
    • Figure 234. During the Postclassic period a new style of architecture and settlement pattern can be seen at Amapa, Nayarit, which is reminiscent of central Mexico (adapted from Meighan 1976: Map 2).
    • Figure 235. Ritual scene depicted on a vessel from the Amapa-Peñitas (Nayarit) area depicting the meeting of several chieftains, possibly during a historic event (adapted from von Winning 1996: Figure 321).
    • Figure 236. Smoking pipes are a common occurrence at Aztatlán sites, like these items from Culiacán, Sinaloa. From the abundance of smoking materials one could suggest that tobacco was an important crop during the Aztatlán horizon (adapted from Kelly 2008
    • Figure 237. These artifacts from Culiacán, Sinaloa, were probably linked to basket- making and textile production. Both activities were very important for the Aztatlán people during the Postclassic period. The materials represented here are deer antler (a
    • Figure 238. Ceramic funerary urns from Culiacán, Sinaloa. The item on the right is covered by an inverted bowl (after Kelly 2008: Plate 7).
    • Figure 239. Map showing the Aztatlán trade system (gateway communities and major sites) through which the Mixteca-Puebla tradition traveled from central Mexico to the northern regions of the ecumene (and beyond) during the Late Postclassic period (adapted
    • Figure 240. Bowls of Aztatlán polychrome pottery from Guasave, Sinaloa, with Mixteca-Puebla features, as defined by Gordon Ekholm in 1942 (adapted from Scott and Foster 2000: Figure 8.8).
    • Figure 241. Examples of Aztatlán polychrome pottery from Guasave, Sinaloa, with Mixteca-Puebla features. They probably indicate cultural contact between central-southern Mexico and the northwestern reaches of the ecumene (adapted from Scott and Foster 200
    • Figure 242. Tripod bowl pertaining to the Aztatlán complex from Culiacán, Sinaloa, with incised decoration reminiscent of the Mixteca-Puebla tradition (adapted from Kelly 2008: Figure 14).
    • Figure 243. Summary scheme of decoration motifs of the Early Culiacán Polychrome pottery type, pertaining to the Aztatlán tradition (adapted from Kelly 2008: Figure 19).
    • Figure 244. Early Culiacán Polychrome bowl (top), and Late Culiacán tripod bowl with ‘rattle supports’ (bottom). Both items are linked to the Aztatlán tradition and show some influence from the Mixteca-Puebla style (adapted from Kelly 2008: Figures 24, 39
    • Figure 245. Culiacán Polychrome Early and Middle Types, showing Mixteca-Puebla iconography and motifs (after Kelly 2008: Plate 1).
    • Figure 246. Culiacán Polychrome Middle Type, showing Mixteca-Puebla iconography and motifs (after Kelly 2008: Plate 2).
    • Figure 247. Spindle whorls pertaining to the Aztatlán tradition from Culiacán, Sinaloa. Cotton agriculture and textile production were probably among the mainstays of the Aztatlán domestic economy (adapted from Kelly 2008: Figure 69).
    • Figure 248. The Feathered Serpent was associated with aquatic imagery in Teotihuacan (a). This rendition of the mythical serpent bearing quetzal feathers could be an antecedent of the pan-Mesoamerican Quetzalcoatl cult (adapted from de la Fuente 1995: Fig
    • Figure 249. The plumed serpent denotes Quetzalcoatl, a quintessential Mesoamerican god and cultural hero. To its right is Ehécatl, the wind god and Quetzalcoatl’s avatar, as depicted in the Laud Codex (adapted from Brundage 1979: figure on p. 163).
    • Figure 250. Detail of a pseudo-cloisonné vessel from Jalisco decorated with a figure probably related to Ehécatl, the wind god, according to Phil Weigand (adapted from Weigand 1992a: figure on p. 228).
  • The Tarascan Empire in the Mesoamerican Ecumene
    • Figure 251. Michoacán is noted for its rich and varied geographic-ecological contexts. The main natural regions are as follows (top-to-bottom): Valleys and Wetlands, Central Sierra, Hot Lands, Southern Sierra Madre, and Coastal Region (adapted from Guevar
    • Figure 252. The different regions of the Michoacán landscape are sub-divided into nine areas (top-to-bottom): Zamora Lowlands, Morelia Region, Purépecha Plateau, Thousand Peaks, Balconies, Balsas Depression, Tepalcatepec Hot Lands, Southern Sierra Madre,
    • Figure 253. Michoacán was given its name by the Aztecs. Meaning ‘land of fish’, this name is appropriate because of the abundant aquatic environments found in this part of West Mexico, including lakes, rivers, streams, springs, marshlands, wetlands, and m
    • Figure 254. When a cacique (chieftain) died in one of the towns of the province, the cazonci gave the new cacique a new golden lip plug, ear flares and bracelets (top left), in the presence of the petámuti, or high priest (center, with spear). Meanwhile,
    • Figure 255. Although the royal palace at Tzintzuntzan was destroyed after the Spanish conquest, there are a few remains of buildings at the archaeological site that could pertain to the royal accommodations from the Protohistoric period (photo by Eduardo
    • Figure 256. The Tarascans of the Protohistoric period relied for their subsistence on an aquatic lifeway that included fishing, hunting and gathering, as seen in this scene from the Relación de Michoacán (Alcalá 2008: figure on p. 33).
    • Figure 257. Tzintzuntzan’s main plaza rests atop a huge man-made platform. The yácatas can be partially seen atop the platform (photo by Eduardo Williams).
    • Figure 258. The yácata is a diagnostic architectural form used by the Tarascans during the Protohistoric period, like this example from Tzintzuntzan (photo by Eduardo Williams).
    • Figure 259. Ihuatzio is a major archaeological site in the Lake Pátzcuaro Basin, not far from Tzintzuntzan (photo by Eduardo Williams).
    • Figure 260. Ihuatzio is located near the center of the Lake Pátzcuaro Basin. It was constructed around the early 14th century. Tarascan architecture from the Protohistoric period can be seen there, like these twin pyramids (photo by Eduardo Williams).
    • Figure 261. The religious functions performed at Ihuatzio were concentrated in a large zone enclosed within high walls (photo by Eduardo Williams).
    • Figure 262. Drawing of several Tarascan elite structures at Ihuatzio (left) and Tzintzuntzan (right) (adapted from Marquina 1951: Plate 74).
    • Figure 263. Some remains of pre-Hispanic elite structures can still be seen beneath the modern city of Pátzcuaro, near Tzintzuntzan, the former Tarascan capital (photo by Eduardo Williams).
    • Figure 264. The Tarascan Empire covered most of the state of Michoacán and parts of the adjoining states of Jalisco, Colima and Guanajuato. This map shows the major towns of the Protohistoric period (after Pollard 2011: Figure 1).
    • Figure 265. The Relación de Michoacán shows a scene in the market in Asajo, a Tarascan town near Tzintzuntzan (adapted from Alcalá 2008: Figure on p. 93).
    • Figure 266. This modern Tarascan market at Pátzcuaro still follows some of the old traditional customs, such as barter and payment in kind (photo by Teddy Williams).
    • Figure 267. Reconstruction drawing of the yácatas at Tzintzuntzan, the main religious structures in the Tarascan capital (adapted from Marquina 1951: Figure 74).
    • Figure 268. The sacred precinct of Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital, with the Great Temple at left. The Aztec and Tarascan capital cities shared many features of the Mesoamerican urban tradition (after Marquina 1951: Plate 55, detail).
    • Figure 269. Archaeological surveys at Tzintzuntzan have identified public zones, such as plazas and religious structures, and residential zones pertaining, respectively, to plebeians, the high elite, and the lower elite. The dashed line indicates the limi
    • Figure 270. The Postclassic site of Las Milpillas in the malpaís (badlands) area of the Lake Zacapu Basin was divided into quarters or barrios, each one with its own plaza, elite structure(s) and altar (adapted from Michelet 1998: Figure 3).
    • Figure 271. This domestic scene taken from the Aztec Codex Mendoza shows two women working in the kitchen, with part of the household assemblage. Left center: metate (quern) and mano (handstone) used to grind maize into dough; upper right: molcajete (grat
    • Figure 272. This domestic scene from the Codex Mendoza shows a wedding where the couple appears sitting on a tule mat or petate, with their garments tied together as a sign of union. Below are a basket with tamales, a tripod bowl with meat (turkey?), and
    • Figure 273. Map of Huandacareo, a major Tarascan site in the Lake Cuitzeo Basin. Huandacareo could have been an outpost of the Tarascan Empire in this key economic area (adapted from Macías Goytia 1990: Figure 3).
    • Figure 274. Frontal view of Structure M-2, a pyramidal structure with a temple on top, excavated at Huandacareo (after Macías Goytia 1990: Figure 14).
    • Figure 275. Hypothetical reconstruction of Structure M-2 at Huandacareo, showing the upper section of the temple building (adapted from Macías Goytia 1990: Figure on p. 50).
    • Figure 276. Diagnostic Tarascan pottery from Huandacareo: (a) tripod bowl; (b) pipes probably used for smoking tobacco; (c) pipe fragments (after Macías Goytia 1990: Figure on cover; photos 38 and 47).
    • Figure 277. Tarascan elite pottery found at Copándaro, a Tarascan site in the Lake Cuitzeo Basin: tripod bowls and jar with spout and handle. These items are virtually identical to the ceramic assemblage excavated at Huandacareo (after Macías Goytia 1994:
    • Figure 278. Needle-like objects of unknown use (18 cm long) made of bone, with elaborate carved designs on one end (shown in detail here). They were part of a rich tomb offering whose occupant must have enjoyed high social status (after Macías Goytia 1990
    • Figure 279. Bronze tweezers with spiral decorations, like these two items found at Huandacareo, were part of the adornments used by members of the Tarascan elite, such as the petámuti, or senior priest (after Macías Goytia 1990: Figures 86 and 87).
    • Figure 280. Bronze tools like this adze excavated at Huandacareo were probably used for tasks like cutting wood or similar materials (after Macías Goytia 1990: Figure 90).
    • Figure 281. Excavations at Huandacareo revealed several elite burials like this tomb with Tarascan ceramics deposited as offerings (adapted from Macías Goytia 1990: Figure 20).
    • Figure 282. Human burials found in Huandacareo’s ‘sacrificial area’ in front of Mound Two (partial view, adapted from Macías Goytia 1990: Figure 22).
    • Figure 283. Tomb 37, located in the East Plaza of Huandacareo, is unusual because of its composite silhouette, similar to a shaft tomb. This tomb held a burial with rich offerings (pottery, seashells, obsidian and turquoise) (adapted from Macías Goytia 19
    • Figure 284. Fine obsidian was used to make many adornments reserved for the Tarascan elite, such as ear flares (left), and lip plugs (right), like these examples with turquoise incrustations (Museo Michoacano, Morelia).
    • Figure 285. Obsidian from sources in Ucareo and Zinapécuaro (Lake Cuitzeo Basin) was in much demand in the Tarascan Empire because of its high quality and the location of the deposits near the Tarascan capital (adapted from Healan 2004: Figure 2).
    • Figure 286. Map of Lake Cuitzeo indicating the major salt-producing towns in the 16th century (triangles), some archaeological sites (squares), and modern towns (circles) (map by Eduardo Williams).
    • Figure 287. A saltmaker working at Simirao, one of the principal salt-producing sites in the Lake Cuitzeo Basin. He is collecting salty earth using the guancoche, a Tarascan sack made of ixtle (maguey fiber) (photo by Eduardo Williams).
    • Figure 288. An archaeological survey conducted by the author in the area of Araró, where many abandoned saltworks are located, discovered the existence of several major pre-Hispanic sites (map by Eduardo Williams).
    • Figure 289. The Tarascan Empire was able to conquer ever-larger territories, as well as to trade beyond its borders, in search for strategic resources like copper (a); silver (b); tin (c); and gold (d) (adapted from Hosler 1994b: Figures 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3
    • Figure 290. Worked potsherds probably used as fishnet sinkers by pre-Hispanic fishers in the Lake Cuitzeo Basin (photo by Eduardo Williams).
    • Figure 291. This type of fishnet, of pre-Hispanic design, is still used by fishers at Lake Cuitzeo (photo by Eduardo Williams).
    • Figure 292. After the tule stalks are cut in Lake Cuitzeo they are taken to shore by canoe. Tule is used to make mats, sacks, baskets, and many other objects (photo by Eduardo Williams).
    • Figure 293. The stalks of carrizo reeds are used to make baskets in many towns around Lake Cuitzeo. Here, the artisan is using stone artifacts (hammer and anvil) similar to the pre-Hispanic tools known from many areas of Mesoamerica (photo by Eduardo Will
    • Figure 294. Map of Tarascan territory with the known administrative units of the empire (note the Lake Cuitzeo Basin and the site of Huandacareo in the upper right corner) (adapted from Pollard 2003a: Figure 13.2).
    • Figure 295. An Aztec marketplace had many goods available to customers from a wide area of the empire, including feathers, pottery, cloth, fine stones, foodstuffs and grains (reconstruction of the Tlatelolco market in the National Museum of Anthropology,
    • Figure 296. Common salt (sodium chloride) was a strategic resource in Mesoamerica. The Aztecs obtained salt from the lakes in the Basin of Mexico, using rough clay pots for boiling brine or storing salt, like this vessel of the Texcoco Fiber Marked type (
    • Figure 297. In the ‘solar system’ model of exchange, the central town, or cabecera, exchanges goods with each subject town or sujeto, but there is no direct trade between the sujetos or with other marketing systems (adapted from Hassig 1985: Figure 4.3).
    • Figure 298. The pochteca or long-distance traders were members of the Aztec elite. They traded in precious commodities such as quetzal feathers, jaguar pelts, precious stones and seashells, among others (top). The pochteca also served as spies for the Azt
    • Figure 299. This illustration from the Florentine Codex shows the Aztec Emperor delivering elite goods to two pochteca merchants (adapted from Macazaga 2008: Figure 54.14).
    • Figure 300. Canoes were an important means of transportation in the Tarascan area. In this scene from Lake Pátzcuaro (early 20th century), we see a long canoe loaded with rolled-up reed mats (petates). In the background there are many smaller canoes used
    • Figure 301. These porters, called tlamemes, carried heavy loads from one end to the other of the Aztec Empire’s vast territory (after the Florentine Codex; adapted from Macazaga 2008: Figure 54.13).
    • Figure 302. The Aztec tribute system was organized like a pyramid, with Tenochtitlan at the top, followed by provincial centers, cabeceras (head towns) and sujetos (smaller subject communities) (adapted from Hassig 1985: Figure 5.3).
    • Figure 303. The Codex Mendoza, written after the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs, presents an inventory of the items received as tribute by the Aztec Empire in the pre-Hispanic period (adapted from Ross 1984:61).
    • Figure 304. The Aztec macuáhuitl was a fearsome weapon: a wooden club with razor-sharp obsidian blades on two sides (after Pastrana 2007: Figure 24).
    • Figure 305. Aztec warriors in full regalia, with lances tipped with obsidian blades (adapted from Ross 1984: Figure on p. 105).
    • Figure 306. Obsidian artifacts from Michoacán: (a) blades and a round object (perhaps a ‘blank’ for making a lip-plug or ear-flare); and (b) an obsidian knife (Museo Michoacano, Morelia, Michoacán).
    • Figure 307. Obsidian core of conical shape (a), and projectile-points (b), from the Lake Zacapu region (adapted from Darras 2008: Figures 6 and 7).
    • Fig 309. A saltmaker working at La Placita, on the coast of Michoacán. This was the main salt-producing community in the region until the saltworks were abandoned around 2010 (photo by Eduardo Williams, 2000).
    • Figure 308. Map of the coast of Michoacán, showing salt-making sites (triangles), archaeological sites (squares), and modern towns (circles) (map by Eduardo Williams).
    • Figure 310. Pre-Hispanic tweezers probably associated with the Tarascan culture. They are identical to the ones carried by the petámuti or Tarascan priest on the chest (adapted from Hosler 1994b: Figure 5.6).
    • Figure 311. Aztec metal smith making a bronze axe in his workshop, using a melting pot and a mold (according to the Florentine Codex, adapted from Macazaga 2008: Figure 126.796).
    • Figure 312. Gold bell found in offering 34 inside the Huitzilopochtli shrine of the Aztec Great Temple (Mexico City). Height: 2.7 cm (after Bonifaz and Robles 1981: Figure 40).
    • Figure 313. Mixtec smiths were highly-skilled artisans, as shown by this silver and green-stone ornament from the Mixtec area of Oaxaca, consisting of a shield with four arrows and several long bells (adapted from Gómez et al. 1985: figure on p. 80).
    • Figure 314. Bronze bells manufactured with ‘wire’ technology like these have been found in Michoacán and Jalisco, among other regions (adapted from Hosler 1994b: Figure 5.2).
    • Figure 315. Aztec ritual mask, made of wood covered with thousands of finely-crafted turquoise tesserae (eyes and teeth made of shell) (copyright © Trustees of the British Museum; reproduced with permission).
    • Figure 316. Greenstone mask with shell and obsidian incrustations, found in Chamber II of the Aztec Great Temple (Mexico City). Provenience: Mezcala, Guerrero; height: 21.6 cm (after Bonifaz and Robles 1981: Figure 85).
    • Figure 317. Aztec necklace made of gold, mother-of-pearl and greenstone. The individual pieces are figures of fish, frogs, snails, serpent heads and rattlesnake tails, as well as human heads. There is a total of 188 pieces. Found in Chamber II of the Azte
    • Figure 318. Spouted vessel with handle, from an elite burial at Urichu, in the Lake Pátzcuaro Basin. This kind of pot may have been used for drinking chocolate in Michoacán during the Protohistoric period (courtesy of Helen Pollard).
    • Figure 319. Spindle whorls from Urichu, in the Lake Pátzcuaro Basin. Large whorls were used to spin maguey fiber (upper left), while small ones spun cotton fiber (courtesy of Helen Pollard).
    • Figure 320. Reproduction of an Aztec chimalli, or ritual feather shield, manufactured with traditional techniques (photograph courtesy of Ángeles Olay).
    • Figure 321. Pipe fragments from Urichu, in the Lake Pátzcuaro Basin. Tobacco production is reported in several historical sources from Michoacán, and pipes like these attest to the popularity of smoking in the Postclassic period (courtesy of Helen Pollard
• List of Tables
  • Table 1. Cultural periods in the Mesoamerican ecumene, with dates and main characteristics.*
  • Table 2. Major periods in the history of archaeological research in West Mexico.
  • Table 3. Description of human burials excavated at Tzintzuntzan and Ihuatzio by Rubín de la Borbolla (1939).
  • Table 4. Chronological Chart of West Mexican Cultural Development.
  • Table 5. Edible plants identified in archaeological contexts at Teotihuacan (after McClung 1987:60).
  • Table 6. Cholula’s archaeological phases, according to the classification of ceramic assemblages. Cholula I-IV pertain to the Formative and Classic periods; Cholulteca I-IV to the Early and Late Postclassic (after Muller 1970 and 1978).
• Preface
• Chapter I Introduction
  • Mesoamerica: Debates and Perspectives over Time
  • The Mesoamerican Ecumene
    • The Aquatic Lifeway in Mesoamerica
  • West Mexico in the Mesoamerican Ecumene
  • Discussion and Conclusions
    • Content and Structure of this Book
• Chapter II History of Archaeological Research in West Mexico
  • Period I: 1880-1910
    • Period II: 1910-1950
    • Period III: 1950-1970
    • Period IV: 1970-1990
  • Part 1. History of Archaeological Research in Michoacán
    • Period I: 1880-1910
    • Period II: 1910-1950
    • Period III: 1950-1970
    • Period IV: 1970-1990
  • Part 2. History of Archaeological Research in Jalisco, Colima, Nayarit and Sinaloa
    • Period I: 1880-1910
    • Period II: 1910-1950
    • Period III: 1950-1970
    • Period IV: 1970-1990
  • Final Remarks
• Chapter III First Inhabitants and Early Cultural Development
  • Geographical Background of West Mexico
  • Paleoindian Period: West Mexico’s First Inhabitants
  • Archaic Period: First Examples of Settled Life
  • Final Remarks
• Chapter IV The Formative Period (ca. 1500 BC-AD 300)
  • The Mesoamerican Ecumene during the Formative Period
  • The Middle Formative Period in West Mexico
  • The Late Formative Period in West Mexico
  • Cultural Relations between West and Central Mexico in the Formative
  • Final Remarks
• Chapter V The Classic Period (ca. AD 250/300-900)
  • The Mesoamerican Ecumene during the Classic Period
    • Teotihuacan: City and State in the Basin of Mexico
  • The Classic Period in West Mexico
    • Michoacán
    • The Bajío Lowlands
    • Jalisco, Colima and Nayarit
    • Zacatecas and the Northwestern Frontier
  • Cultural Relations between West and Central Mexico during the Classic Period
  • Final Remarks
• Chapter VI The Postclassic Period (ca. AD 900-1521)
  • Part 1. The Central and Southern Areas of the Mesoamerican Ecumene in the Postclassic Period
    • Tula and the Toltecs
    • The Mixtec State and the Mixteca-Puebla Artistic Tradition
  • Part 2. The Postclassic Period in West Mexico
    • The Expansion of the Aztatlán Tradition in the Ecumene
  • Final Remarks
• Chapter VII The Tarascan Empire in the Mesoamerican Ecumene
  • The Tarascan Empire in the Protohistoric Period (ca. AD 1450-1530)
    • Pre-Hispanic Urbanization at Tzintzuntzan
  • The Lake Cuitzeo Basin: A Key Economic Area of the Tarascan Empire
    • Strategic Resources
    • Discussion
  • Trade, Tribute and Transportation within the Tarascan Empire
    • Circulation of Rare and Strategic Resources within the Tarascan Empire
  • Final Remarks
• Chapter VIII Discussion and Conclusions
• References Cited