"Bilingual speakers are normally aware of what language they are speaking or hearing; there is, however, no widely accepted consensus on the degree of lexical and morphosyntactic similarity that defines the psycholinguistic threshold of distinct languages. This book focuses on the Afro-Colombian creole language Palenquero, spoken in bilingual contact with its historical lexifier, Spanish. Although sharing largely cognate lexicons, the languages are in general not mutually intelligible. For example, Palenquero exhibits no adjective-noun or verb-subject agreement, uses pre-verbal tense-mood-aspect particles, and exhibits unbounded clause-final negation. The present study represents a first attempt at mapping the psycholinguistic boundaries between Spanish and Palenquero from the speakers' own perspective, including traditional native Palenquero speakers, adult heritage speakers, and young native Spanish speakers who are acquiring Palenquero as a second language. The latter group also provides insights into the possible cognitive cost of "de-activating" Spanish morphological agreement as well as the relative efficiency of pre-verbal vs. clause-final negation. In this study, corpus-based analyses are combined with an array of interactive experimental techniques, demonstrating that externally-imposed classifications do not always correspond to speakers' own partitioning of language usage in their communities"--.

• Palenquero and Spanish in Contact
• Editorial page
• Title page
• Copyright page
• Table of contents
• Acknowledgments
• Key to glosses
• A note on the examples
• Introduction
  • Opportunities provided by research into the Palenquero language
    • Lexicon
    • A grammar within a grammar
    • Acquisition of the creole as a second language
    • The present study
• 1. The Palenquero language
  • San Basilio de Palenque: Founding and linguistic history
  • Scholarship on the Palenquero language
• 2. Palenque
  • From scorn to admiration
  • Predictions of doom
  • Rising from the ashes
  • The emergence of metalinguistic awareness and Palenquero “language experts”
  • Back to the future: Archaic restoration and “neo-Palenquero” lexical items
  • Other challenges to research in Palenque
  • Classification of Lengua ri Palenge speakers
• 3. A brief sketch of Palenquero grammar
  • Overview
  • Absence of grammatical gender
  • Nominal plural marking
  • Articles
  • Palenquero pronouns
  • Anchor 61
  • Palenquero complementizers
  • Pleonastic lo
  • Possession
  • Sentential negation
  • The Palenquero verbal system
    • The extension of -ba to non-verbal elements as a discourse marker
  • Lengua ri Palenge pronoun + -ndo as discourse marker
  • Anchor 69
  • Palenquero copular verbs
  • The extension of the Palenquero preposition andi
• 4. Palenquero-Spanish mixing
  • Previous observations
  • Apparent Palenquero-Spanish mixing: Field data
    • Possessive constructions
    • Plural marking
    • Definite articles
    • Negation
    • Anchor 92
    • Insertion of conjugated verbs
    • Monotonic language switches
  • Are Palenquero-Spanish mixed utterances true code-switching?
• 5. Palenqueros’ thoughts
  • Introduction
  • The first experiments: Language-identification
    • Method
      • Participants
      • Materials
      • Procedure
    • Anchor 118
      • Spanish-only stimuli
      • Palenquero-only stimuli
  • Reactions to stimuli nominally containing both Spanish and Palenquero elements
    • Overview
    • Conjugated verbs – first person plural in -mo
    • Conjugated verbs – first person singular
    • Other Spanish-like conjugated verbs
    • Anchor 126
    • Preverbal negation with no
    • Feminine gender agreement
  • Palenqueros’ reactions to complete intrasentential language shifts
  • Language mixing judgments from a variationist perspective
    • A multivariate logistic regression analysis
    • Preliminary results
    • Discussion of results
  • Anchor 134
    • Creating synthesized stimuli
  • Retesting language identification: An experiment with synthesized voices
    • Participants
    • Procedure and materials
    • Results and discussion
• 6. Palenqueros talk back
  • Shortcomings of non-interactive language-identification tasks
  • Palenqueros and interactive tasks: Elicited repetition
  • Close-shadowing: A first approximation
    • Participants
    • Materials
    • Procedure
    • Results and discussion
    • Strategic omissions, pauses, and backtracking
    • Spontaneous intrasentential language shifts during shadowing
  • More interactive participation: Speeded acceptability judgment + repetition
    • Participants
    • Materials
    • Procedure
    • Results and discussion
      • Speeded acceptability task
      • Repetition task
  • Factors influencing identification of acceptable Lengua ri Palenge
    • Another variationist analysis
  • Factors influencing judgments of unacceptability (= mixing?)
    • Continuing the variationist analysis
    • A revised variationist model
  • Rapid translation: Another window into language identification
    • Method
      • Participants
      • Materials
      • Procedure
    • Initial results and discussion
      • All-Spanish and all-Palenquero stimuli
      • Putatively mixed Palenquero-Spanish stimuli
  • Preliminary observations
    • Cues to language status
• 7. Palenquero-Spanish mixing and models of language switching
  • Palenquero and Spanish mixing
  • Why do (some) Palenqueros mix Spanish with Palenquero?
  • Why is Palenquero-Spanish mixing accepted as “authentic” lengua ri Palenge?
• 8. Palenquero as a second language
  • The language “teaching” environment in San Basilio de Palenque
  • More observations of young L2 speakers’ lengua ri Palenge
  • Data from interviews
  • Results from the translation experiment
  • Collection of written samples
  • Combinations of a and tan, including non-future uses
    • Examples from translation task
    • Examples of (a) tan from student writings
  • Referential null subjects
    • Examples from translation task
    • Examples in written assignments
  • Possessives
    • Examples of over-extended si and preposed possessives from translation task
    • Examples in written assignments
  • Use of the Palenquero plural marker ma as singular
    • Use of ma with singular reference in interviews
    • Use of ma with singular reference in picture-naming
    • Anchor 389
    • Examples from translation task
    • Examples in written assignments
  • Spanish-like plural marking
    • Examples from translation task
    • Examples from written assignments
  • Definite articles
    • Examples from translation task
    • Examples from written assignments
  • Conjugated verbs
    • Examples of conjugated verbs from translation task
    • Examples of conjugated verbs from written assignments
  • Misuse and misidentification of Palenquero pronouns
    • Examples from interviews
    • Examples from translation task
    • Examples from written assignments
  • Feminine gender agreement
  • Preverbal negation
    • Examples from translation task
    • Examples from written assignments
  • L2 Palenquero speakers’ processing and production of phrase-final negation
    • Results: Translation of Spanish preverbal negator no to Palenquero
  • Another experimental examination of Palenquero negative placement
    • Participants
    • First experiment: Describing differences between pictures
      • Materials
      • Method
      • Results and discussion
    • Second experiment: Responding to questions about videos
      • Materials
      • Method
      • Results and discussion
    • Overall discussion of negation experiments
  • Insertion of key Palenquero lexical items
    • Examples from translation task
    • Examples from written assignments
    • Intertwined intrasentential code-mixing
  • A summary of variation: Principal components and discriminant analyses
  • Discussion: The future of lengua ri Palenge
    • The least proficient Palenquero speakers
    • Young heritage Palenquero speakers
• 9. A window into Palenquero-Spanish bilingualism
  • Introduction
  • Gender agreement: At any cost?
  • The representation of grammatical gender
  • The possible cost of gender agreement
  • Automatization vs. no agreement
  • Experiment 1: Picture-describing
    • Anchor 97
      • Participants
      • Materials
      • Procedure
    • Results and discussion
  • Experiment 2: Speeded acceptability judgment + repetition
    • Results and discussion
  • Experiment 3: Number recall + repetition
    • Anchor 105
      • Participants
      • Materials
      • Procedure
    • Results and discussion
  • Experiment 4: Speeded translation
    • Results: Spanish gender agreement into Palenquero
  • Experiment 5: More memory-loaded repetition
    • Anchor 113
    • Materials
    • Procedure
    • Results and discussion
  • Experiment 6: More close shadowing
    • Participants
    • Materials
    • Procedure
    • Anchor 121
  • General discussion
• 10. Conclusions
  • Summarizing the results
  • Has Palenquero-Spanish mixing been present in San Basilio de Palenque from the outset?
  • Is Palenquero-Spanish mixing a sign of decreolization?
  • Is Palenquero-Spanish mixing code-switching?
  • Palenquero: (Still) an endangered language?
• References
• Appendix A. Samples of L2 learners’ written lengua ri Palenge
• Appendix B. Examples of written Palenquero in the community
• Appendix C. Palenquero consultants
• Index