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Table of Contents
- Cover
- Fungicides in Practice
- Copyright
- Contents
- Preface
- Acknowledgements
- 1 Introduction
- Population Growth and
Food Production
- The impact of disease on crop production
- Agricultural Technology and the Impact of Fungicide Use
- The History of Fungicide Use
- The Growth of the Agrochemicals Industry
- References
- Population Growth and
Food Production
- 2 Plant Pathology and Plant Pathogens
- Key Points
- Introduction
- Characteristics of Plant Pathogens
- Fungi
- Oomycota
- Plasmodiophora
- Phytopathogenic lifestyles; biotrophs, necrotrophs and hemibiotrophs
- Avirulence genes, PAMPs, MAMPs and effectors
- Genomics and genetic variability in plant pathogens
- The Impact of the New Paradigms on Fungicide Research
- Nomenclature in the Literature and Practice
- References
- 3 The Fungicide Industry
- Key Points
- Introduction
- The Global Fungicides Market
- Fungicide sales by mode of action
- Global fungicides market by crop
- Leading Fungicide Manufacturers
- References
- Websites
- 4 Fungicide Discovery
- Key Points
- Target Selection
- Market size
- New and re-emergent diseases
- Fungicide resistance
- New modes of action
- Screening for Fungicide Leads
- The design of fungicide screens
- In vivo screens
- High-throughput tests
- Mode-of-action screens
- In planta screens
- Primary target organisms
- Functional genomics
- Sources of fungicide leads
- Random screening
- Combinatorial chemistry
- Analogue synthesis
- Biorational design
- Biorational design of the SDHI fungicides
- Heterocyclic compounds
- Chemical classifications other than single heterocycles
- Biorational design of fenpicoxamid, a new QiI active
- Biorational design of metyltetraprole
- Screening methodology
- The design of fungicide screens
- References
- Website
- 5 Fungicide Modes of Action and Spectrum
- Key Points
- Introduction
- Modes of Action
- A; Inhibition of RNA synthesis
- A1; RNA polymerase 1; phenylamides; PA
- A2; Adenosine deaminase; hydroxy- (2-amino)-pyrimidines
- A3; DNA/RNA synthesis (proposed); heteroaromatics
- B; Mitosis and cell division
- B1; β-Tubulin assembly in mitosis; methyl benzimidazole carbamates; MBCs
- B2; β-Tubulin assembly in mitosis; phenylcarbamates
- B3; β-Tubulin assembly in mitosis; benzamides
- B4; Cell division (unknown site); phenylureas
- B5; Delocalization of spectrin-like proteins; pyridinylmethyl benzamides
- B6; Actin/myosin/fimbrin function; aryl phenyl ketones
- C; Respiration
- C2; Complex II; succinate dehydrogenase inhibitors; SDHIs
- C3; Complex III; cytochrome bc1 (ubiquinol oxidase) at Qo site (Cytb gene); QoI
- C4; Complex III; cytochrome bc1 (ubiquinone reductase) at Qi site; QiI
- C5; Uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation
- C7; ATP transport (proposed); thiophene carboxamides
- C8; Inhibition of complex III; cytochrome bc1 (ubiquinone reductase) at Qo stigmatellin- binding subsite; QoSI
- D; Amino acid and protein synthesis
- D1; Methionine biosynthesis (proposed) (cgs gene); anilinopyrimidines; APs
- E; Signal transduction
- E1; Signal transduction (mechanism unknown); azanaphthalenes
- E2; MAP/histidine kinase in osmotic signal transduction (os-2, HOG1); phenylpyrroles; PPs
- E3; MAP/histidine kinase in osmotic signal transduction (os-1, Daf1); dicarboximides
- F; Lipid synthesis or transport/membrane integrity or function
- F3; Cell peroxidation (proposed); aromatic hydrocarbon (AH) fungicides (chlorophenyls, nitroanilines), 1,2,4-thiadiazoles
- F4; Cell-membrane permeability, fatty acids (proposed); carbamates
- F9; Lipid homeostasis and transfer/storage; OSBP1 oxysterol-binding protein homologue; piperidinyl thiazole isoxazolines
- G; Sterol biosynthesis
in membranes (SBIs)
- G1; C14-demethylation inhibitors (erg11/cyp51); SBI Class I; DMIs
- G2; Δ8→Δ7-isomerase and Δ14-reductase inhibitors (erg24, erg2); SBI Class II; amines (morpholines)
- G3; 3-Keto reductase (erg27); KRI (keto reductase inhibitor) fungicides; SBI Class III
- H5; Cell-wall biosynthesis; carboxylic acid amides; CAAs
- I; Inhibition of melanin biosynthesis
- Multi-site (M) and unknown (U) modes
of action
- M03; Dithiocarbamates and relatives (electrophiles)
- M04; Phthalimides (electrophiles)
- M05; Chloronitriles (unspecified mechanism)
- M06; Sulfamides (electrophiles)
- M07; Bis-guanidines (membrane disruptors, detergents)
- U06; Phenyl acetamides
- U12; Guanidines
- U13; Cyanomethylene thiazolidine
- U27; Cyanoacetamide-oxime
- U35; Benzotriazines
- A; Inhibition of RNA synthesis
- References
- Website
- Further Reading
- 6 Biological Fungicides – Botanicals and Biocontrol Agents – and Basic Substances
- Key Points
- Introduction
- The market for biological fungicides
- History
- Discovery and Development
of Biopesticides
- Biocontrol agents
- Botanicals
- Basic Substances
- Sulfur fungicides
- Copper and other metals
- Mode of Action of Biofungicides
- Competition or exclusion
- Antibiosis
- Hyperparasitism
- Defence induction
- Biocidal activity
- Miscellaneous modes of action
- Using Biological Fungicides
- Biocontrol agents
- Copper formulations
- Copper resistance
- Sulfur formulations
- Disease Control in Organic
Agriculture
- Comparing crop protection in conventional and Organic cropping
- References
- Websites
- 7 Formulation
- Key Points
- Introduction
- Formulation Types
- Adjuvants
- Surfactants
- Emulsifiers
- Nanotechnology
- Formulation of Biologicals
- References
- 8 Fungicide Mobility
- Key Points
- Introduction
- Contact Fungicides
- Penetrant Fungicides
- Chemical Characteristics of Commonly Used Fungicides
- References
- Website
- 9 Application and Sprayer Technology
- Key Points
- Introduction
- Application Types
- Seed treatments
- Granular application
- Pre-planting dips
- Postharvest dips
- Fungicide injection
- Drenches
- Foliar treatments
- Using Fungicides on Protected Crops
- Sprayer Technology
- Sprayer types
- Backpack (or knapsack) sprayers
- Air blower sprayers
- Hydraulic sprayers
- Compressed air sprayers
- Spot sprayers
- Skid-mounted sprayers
- Boom sprayers
- Electrostatic sprayers
- Rotary disc sprayers
- Thermal foggers
- Cold (or mechanical) foggers
- Nozzles
- Fan nozzles
- Cone nozzles
- Other nozzle types
- How to choose a nozzle
- Drift prevention
- Droplets
- Spray pressure
- Volume
- Sprayer types
- References
- 10 Fungicide Efficacy Evaluation
- Key Points
- Introduction
- Factors to be Considered When Evaluating Fungicides
- The target pathogen
- The host
- The environment
- Economic benefits
- Agronomic sustainability of product use
- Efficacy trial components
- Efficacy Trial Experimental Design
- Variables
- Categorical variables
- Continuous variables
- Plot layout
- To block or not to block?
- Randomized complete block design
- Factorial design and split plots
- Repeated measures
- Power analysis
- Samples and sampling
- Fungicide application
- Efficacy assessments
- Statistical analysis
- Plotting the data
- Central tendencies (mean, median, mode)
- Measures of dispersion (standard deviation, variance, range)
- Analysis of variance
- Replication and reproducibility
- Variables
- Efficacy Evaluation for Minor Use Applications
- Reproducibility, Record Keeping and Reporting
- Conclusion
- Notes
- References
- Further Reading
- 11 Fungicide Resistance
- Key Points
- Introduction
- Fungicide Resistance Evolution
- Definitions
- Resistance, tolerance and sensitivity
- Measuring resistance
- Resistance factor
- Field resistance
- Cross-resistance
- Multiple resistance; multi single-, oligo- and multi-drug resistance
- Metabolic resistance
- Fitness penalty
- Resistance Risk
- Pathogen risk factors; fecundity; latent period; sexual reproduction
- Fungicide risk factors
- Monitoring for field resistance
- Phenotypic and genotypic monitoring
- Determining the mode of resistance
- Fungicide Resistance in Different Fungicide Classes
- Multi-site fungicides
- Single-site fungicides
- B1/2; Methyl benzimidazole carbamates
- C3; Quinone outside inhibitors
- C2; Succinate dehydrogenase inhibitors
- G3; Demethylation inhibitors
- H5; Cellulose synthase
- A1; Phenylamides
- Multi-drug resistance
- The Management of Resistance
- Good agronomy hygiene
- Integrated disease management
- Dose rate
- Mixtures and alternation
- Multi-drug resistance and resistance management – fungicide refugia?
- New fungicide groups and resistance – can we predict risk of resistance?
- References
- Websites
- 12 Legislation and Regulation
- Key Points
- Introduction
- Registration Requirements
- Toxicology
- Environment
- Residues
- Operator safety
- Long-term risks
- Resistance risk
- The Label
- References
- 13 The Future of Disease Control
- Key Points
- Food Demand and Disease Threats
- Loss of Existing Fungicides
- The Discovery Process
- RNA-based fungicides; spray-induced gene silencing
- Genetic Disease Control
- Mixtures of cultivars
- Transgenic (GM) disease control
- Genome editing
- The Future
- References
- Appendix – EPPO Codes
- Index
- Back Cover
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