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This book, inclusive of 39 chapters, provides a detailed discussion on the biotechnological methods and processes, as well as the industrial applications, of various microbial resources. Current use of these microbial resources in the medical (anti-cancer substances from bacteria), agricultural (i.e., mycorrhizal fungi, biofertilizers, insect pest control), food (i.e., probiotics, prebiotics), feed, cosmetic, biofuel, and bioremediation industries are highlighted, giving researchers in these various fields a valuable resource for the latest developments in microbial bioresources.
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Table of Contents
- The Handbook of Microbial Bioresources
- Copyright
- Contents
- Contributors
- Preface
- Foreword
- 1: Microbial Resources for Improved Crop Productivity
- Abstract
- 1.1 Introduction
- 1.2 Microbes Promote Plant Growth and Nutrient Uptake
- 1.3 Microbes Produce Plant Growth-regulating Substances
- 1.4 Microbes Reinforce Plant Immunity
- 1.5 Microbes Provide Protection from Abiotic Stress
- 1.6 Current Challenges for Agricultural Applications of Microbes
- Acknowledgements
- References
- 2: The Contributions of Mycorrhizal Fungi
- Abstract
- 2.1 Introduction
- 2.2 Soil Amendments
- 2.3 Morphology and Composition of Historical Black-C
- 2.4 Mycorrhizal Plants and Biochar
- 2.5 Mycorrhizal Plants and Compost
- 2.6 Conclusion
- Acknowledgements
- Note
- References
- 3: Trichoderma: Utilization for Agriculture Management and Biotechnology
- Abstract
- 3.1 Introduction
- 3.2 Biology of Genus Trichoderma
- 3.2.1 Morphological characters of Trichoderma spp.
- 3.3 Trichoderma as Biocontrol Agents
- 3.3.1 Type of biocontrol mechanism
- Antibiosis
- Mycoparasitism
- Competition
- Fungistasis
- 3.3.1 Type of biocontrol mechanism
- 3.4 Trichoderma as a Source Organism for Useful Genes
- 3.4.1 Progress in identification of Trichoderma genes
- 3.5 Commercial Utilization
- 3.5.1 Trichoderma in the textile industry
- 3.5.2 Trichoderma in the pulp and paper industry
- 3.5.3 Trichoderma in the food and livestock feed industries
- 3.5.4 Use of Trichoderma in agriculture and impacts on plants
- Colonization of the plant root
- Trichoderma as a biofertilizer
- Trichoderma advances plant development
- Trichoderma induces plant resistance to pathogens
- References
- 4: The Role of Bacillus Bacterium in Formation of Plant Defence: Mechanism and Reaction
- Abstract
- 4.1 Bacilli Preparations in Plant Growing and Defence
- 4.1.1 Biofungicides: a short classification and general biological activity
- 4.1.2 Bacilli biofungicides and their activity
- 4.2 Mechanisms of Plant Disease Resistance, Invoked by PGPR of Bacillus spp.
- 4.2.1 Synthesis by Bacillus PGPR antibiotic compounds
- 4.2.2 Improvement of phosphoric and nitrogenous nutrition in plants
- 4.2.3 Synthesis of siderophores
- 4.2.4 Hydrolases as active components of Bacilli bacteria
- 4.2.5 Synthesis of hormone-like compounds and signalling molecules
- 4.2.6 Activation of the plant defence system
- 4.2.7 Destruction of mycotoxins and increasing plant resistance against them
- 4.3 Conclusion
- Acknowledgements
- References
- 5: Biofilm Formation on Plant Surfaces by Rhizobacteria: Impact on Plant Growth and Ecological Significance
- Abstract
- 5.1 Introduction
- 5.2 Processes in Biofilm Formation
- 5.2.1 Initial attachment
- 5.2.2 Irreversible attachment
- 5.2.3 Microcolony formation
- 5.2.4 Maturation
- 5.2.5 Dispersion
- 5.3 Ecological Significance of Biofilm Formation
- 5.3.1 Defence
- 5.3.2 Availability of nutrients to microbes
- 5.3.3 Colonization
- 5.3.4 Acquisition of new genetic traits
- 5.4 Biofilms in the Rhizosphere
- 5.4.1 Biofilm formation by PGPR
- 5.4.2 Biofilm formation by phytopathogens
- 5.5 Multi-species Biofilms in the Rhizosphere
- 5.5.1 Role of bacterial signals in biofilm formation
- 5.6 Role of Plant Root Exudates on Biofilms
- 5.7 Biofilms in Relation to Plant Growth and Health Protection
- 5.7.1 Role of biofilms in biocontrol of plant diseases
- 5.7.2 Role of biofilms in mitigating stress in the rhizosphere
- 5.8 Conclusion
- Acknowledgement
- References
- 6: Biofilmed Biofertilizers: Application in Agroecosystems
- Abstract
- 6.1 Introduction
- 6.2 Biofertilizers and theCommunity Approach of Microbes
- 6.3 Role of BFBFs in Agroecosystems
- 6.4 Fertilizing Potential of BFBFs
- 6.5 Conclusion
- Acknowledgements
- References
- 7: Microbial Nanoformulation: Exploring Potential for Coherent Nano-farming
- Abstract
- 7.1 Introduction
- 7.2 Applications of Nanotechnology in Agriculture: Bridging the Gap
- 7.3 Role of Various Microbes in the Synthesis of NPs
- 7.3.1 Metallic NPs
- 7.3.2 Oxide NPs
- 7.3.3 Sulfide NPs
- 7.3.4 Other NPs
- 7.4 Possible Mechanisms for Antimicrobial Action of NPs Against Plant Pathogens
- 7.5 Issues Related to Environmental Biosafety of Metal NPs
- Forecasting severe threats
- 7.6 Regulations for Nanotechnology
- 7.6.1 European Union’s approach to regulating nanotechnology
- 7.6.2 International standards for nanotechnology-based research
- 7.6.3 International scenario on biosafety of nanoproducts
- 7.7 Conclusions and Recommendations
- Acknowledgements
- References
- 8: Bacillus thuringiensis: a Natural Tool in Insect Pest Control
- Abstract
- 8.1 Short Story of Bacillus thuringiensis
- 8.2 Biodiversity of Toxin Proteins
- 8.3 Mode of Action of Bacillus thuringiensis Cry Proteins
- 8.4 B. thuringiensis Cry toxins as Bioinsecticide Products
- 8.5 Development of Transgenic B. thuringiensis Crops
- 8.6 Protein Engineering in B. thuringiensis Toxins
- 8.7 Conclusion and Future Prospects
- References
- 9: Pleurotus as an Exclusive Eco-Friendly Modular Biotool
- Abstract
- 9.1 Introduction
- 9.2 Historic Details of Pleurotus
- 9.3 Biological Species of Pleurotus
- 9.4 Pleurotus as a Modular Biotool
- 9.4.1 Biotool for degradation and bioremediation
- Degradation of lignocelluloses
- Decolorization of textile dyes
- Bioremediation of heavy metals
- Degradation of pesticides
- Degradation of herbicides
- Degradation of explosives
- Degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAH)
- 9.4.2 Biotool for productionof multipurpose enzymes
- Production of protease
- Production of cellulase
- Production of xylanase
- Production of peroxidases
- Production of laccase
- 9.4.3 Biotool for production of food and food derivatives
- Biotool producing single cell protein (SCP)
- Biotool producing mushrooms
- Biotool producing multivitamins
- Biotool producing minerals
- Biotool producing dietary fibres
- 9.4.4 Biotool for production of medicinal products
- Biotool producing antioxidants
- Biotool producing polysaccharides
- 9.4.5 Biotool for production of animal feed and fodder
- 9.4.6 Biotool for production of compost
- 9.4.7 Biotool for biobleaching
- Biotool of pulp bleaching
- Biotool of skin bleaching
- 9.4.1 Biotool for degradation and bioremediation
- 9.5 Conclusion
- References
- 10: Use of Biotechnology in Promoting Novel Food and Agriculturally Important Microorganisms
- Abstract
- 10.1 Introduction
- 10.2 Role of Microbes in Agriculture and the Food Industry
- 10.2.1 Biofertilizers and plant growth promoters
- 10.2.2 Microbes as biotic stress managers
- 10.2.3 Microbes as abiotic stress alleviators
- 10.2.4 Microbes in food processing
- Degradation of natural toxins
- Biotransformation of mycotoxins
- Novel microbial enzymes with wider adoptability and utility
- 10.3 Biotechnology for Characterization of Agricultural Microbes
- 10.3.1 Identification of microbes using 16S rRNA analysis
- 10.3.2 Characterization of microbial genes useful in agriculture
- 10.3.3 Targeted gene sequence
- 10.3.4 Differential expression studies
- 10.3.5 Genome sequencing
- 10.3.6 Metagenomics for new beneficial inoculants
- 10.4 Biotechnology to Enhance the Activity of Microorganisms Useful to Agriculture
- 10.4.1 Protoplast fusion
- 10.4.2 Genetic recombination
- 10.4.3 Use of regulators for expression of microbial genes
- 10.5 Concerns About the Use of GMMs
- 10.6 Future Work
- References
- 11: Endophytes: an Emerging Microbial Tool for Plant Disease Management
- Abstract
- 11.1 Introduction
- 11.1.1 Advantages of endophytes in plant disease management
- 11.1.2 Biodiversity of endophytes
- 11.2 Major Endophytic Microorganisms
- 11.2.1 Fungal endophytes
- 11.2.2 Bacterial endophytes
- 11.2.3 Actinomycetes
- Antimicrobial activity of endophytic actinomycetes
- 11.3 Endophyte–Host Relationship
- 11.4 Bioactivity of Endophytes
- 11.5 Mechanisms of Action of Endophytes
- 11.5.1 Direct parasitism
- Antibiosis
- Production of lytic enzymes
- Detoxification and degradation of virulence factors
- Hyperparasites and predation
- 11.5.2 Indirect effects
- Induction of plant resistance
- Stimulation of plant secondary metabolites
- Promotion of plant growth and physiology
- Competition
- 11.5.1 Direct parasitism
- 11.6 Endophytes: an Emerging Tool as Biocontrol Agents
- 11.6.1 Potential endophytic antagonists
- 11.6.2 Endophytes’ metabolites active against insects and nematodes
- Insects
- Nematodes
- 11.6.3 Protocol for isolation of endophyticmicroorganisms
- 11.7 Conclusion
- References
- 12: Role of Listeria monocytogenes in Human Health: Disadvantages and Advantages
- Abstract
- 12.1 Introduction
- 12.2 Disadvantages and Advantages of the Bacterium
- 12.2.1 Disadvantages
- Food poisioning
- Abortion
- Meningitis
- Other infections
- 12.2.2 Advantages
- L. monocytogenes as a live bacterial vaccine vector
- L. monocytogenes in anti-cancer therapies
- Treatment of infectious diseases
- 12.2.1 Disadvantages
- 12.3 Conclusion and Future Prospects
- Acknowledgements
- References
- 13 Natural Weapons against Cancer from Bacteria
- Abstract
- 13.1 Introduction
- 13.2 Anticancer Compounds from Marine Bacteria
- 13.3 Anticancer Activities of Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB)
- 13.4 Anticancer Activities of Bacteriocins/Antimicrobial Peptides Isolated from Bacteria
- 13.5 Conclusion
- References
- 14: Giardia and Giardiasis: an Overview of Recent Developments
- Abstract
- 14.1 Introduction
- 14.2 Historical Background of Giardia
- 14.3 Systemic Classification of Giardia
- 14.4 Epidemiology
- 14.5 Life Cycle
- 14.5.1 Trophozoite structure
- 14.5.2 Mitosome
- 14.5.3 Cyst structure
- 14.6 Molecular Biology
- 14.6.1 Transfection
- 14.6.2 Transcription and translation
- 14.6.3 Tranposons
- 14.7 The RNA Interference (RNAi) Pathway in Giardia
- 14.8 Oxidative Stress
- 14.9 Mode of Cell Death
- 14.10 Immunology
- 14.10.1 Humoral response
- 14.10.2 Cell-mediated response
- 14.11 Antigenic Variation
- 14.11.1 Occurrence of antigenic variation
- 14.11.2 Molecular mechanism in the control of antigenic variation
- 14.12 Pathology and Pathogenesis
- 14.12.1 Clinical features
- 14.12.2 Diagnosis
- Microscopic stool examination
- Examination of intestinal fluid
- Small bowel biopsy
- Gastrointestinal radiology
- Immunodiagnosis
- DNA probe
- Molecular diagnosis – nucleic acid detection methods
- 14.13 Treatment of Giardiasis
- 14.13.1 G. lamblia susceptibility towards aminoglycosides
- 14.13.2 Susceptibility to nitroheterocyclic drugs
- Mode of action of tinidazole
- 14.13.3 Susceptibility to benzimidazoles
- 14.13.4 Other agents
- 14.14 Potential Drug Target Against Giardia
- 14.15 Prevention of Giardiasis
- References
- 15: Power of Bifidobacteria in Food Applications for Health Promotion
- Abstract
- 15.1 Introduction
- 15.2 The Bifidobacterium
- 15.2.1 Taxonomy and general features
- 15.2.2 Structure of the cell wall
- 15.2.3 Oxygen tolerance
- 15.2.4 Temperature and pH
- 15.2.5 Metabolism of carbohydrates
- 15.2.6 Sensitivity to antibiotics
- 15.3 Microbial Ecosystem and Health Effects
- 15.3.1 Gut microbiota
- 15.3.2 Diarrhoea
- 15.3.3 Inflammatory bowel diseases
- 15.3.4 Allergenic diseases
- 15.3.5 Cancer prevention
- 15.3.6 Helicobacter pylori infection
- 15.3.7 Lactose intolerance
- 15.4 Bifidobacteria in Food Products
- 15.4.1 Dairy-based matrices
- Milk
- Yoghurt
- Cheese
- Ice cream
- 15.4.2 Non-dairy based matrices
- Fruits and vegetables
- Cereals
- 15.4.1 Dairy-based matrices
- 15.5 Concluding Remarks
- Acknowledgements
- References
- 16: Probiotics and Dental Caries: a Recent Outlook on Conventional Therapy
- Abstract
- 16.1 Introduction
- 16.2 Dental Caries
- 16.3 Potential of Probiotics for Prevention or Treatment of Dental Caries
- 16.3.1 Using probiotics to replace the pathogenic flora
- 16.4 Direct and Indirect Mechanisms of Probiotic Action
- 16.4.1 Modulation of systemic immune system
- 16.4.2 Effect on local immunity
- 16.4.3 Effect on non-immunologic/non-specific defence mechanisms
- 16.4.5 Prevention of plaque formation by neutralizing free electrons and production of antioxidants
- 16.4.6 Probiotics change the environment
- 16.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Directions
- References
- 17: Human Microbiota for Human Health
- Abstract
- 17.1 Introduction
- 17.2 Distribution of Microbes in the Human Body
- 17.3 Microbial Flora Acquired During Development
- 17.4 Human Microbiota and Health
- 17.5 Variation in the Human Microbiota
- 17.6 Gut Microflora and Human Metabolism
- 17.7 Horizontal Gene Transfer (HGT) Favours Bacterial Efficiency
- 17.8 Microbiota and Disease
- 17.9 Biotherapeutic Agents from Human Milk
- 17.10 Microbiota and its Future in Wealth Generation
- References
- 18: Biotechnological Production of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
- Abstract
- 18.1 Introduction
- 18.2 Microbial Metabolism for PUFA Production
- 18.3 Oleaginous Microorganisms
- 18.4 Production, Extraction and Chemical Characterization of Microbial Oil
- 18.4.1 Production of Microbial Oil
- 18.4.2 Extraction of Microbial Oil
- 18.4.3 Chemical Characterization of Microbial Oil
- 18.5 Microbial Oil’s Applications
- 18.6 Future Trends
- 18.7 Concluding Remarks
- Acknowledgements
- References
- 19: Functional Enzymes for Animal Feed Applications
- Abstract
- 19.1 Introduction
- 19.2 Application of Functional Enzymes in Animal Feeding
- 19.3 Phytases (Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) # 37288-11-2)
- 19.3.1 Characterization and production of phytase
- 19.3.2 Enzymatic hydrolysis of phytic acid
- 19.3.3 Application of phytases in animal feed
- 19.4 Xylanases (CAS # 9025-57-4)
- 19.4.1 Classification and production
- 19.4.2 Application in animal feed
- 19.5 Future Trends
- References
- 20: Microbial Xylanases: Production, Applications and Challenges
- Abstract
- 20.1 Introduction
- 20.2 Xylan: Composition and Structure
- 20.3 Xylanases: Classification and Characteristics
- 20.3.1 Endo-1,4-β-xylanases
- 20.3.2 β-Xylosidases
- 20.3.3 α-Arabinofuranosidases
- 20.3.4 Acetylxylan esterase
- 20.3.5 α-Glucuronidases
- 20.4 Production of Xylanases
- 20.4.1 Fungi
- 20.4.2 Bacteria
- 20.5 Production of Xylanases Under Solid State Fermentation (SSF) and Submerged Fermentation (SmF)
- 20.5.1 Xylanase production by SmF
- 20.5.2 Production of xylanase by SSF
- 20.6 Biotechnological Applications
- 20.6.1 Bioethanol production
- 20.6.2 Animal feedstocks
- 20.6.3 Xylanases in the pulp and paper industry
- Pulp fibre morphology
- Biobleaching of pulp
- 20.6.4 Xylanases in the baking industry
- 20.6.5 Fruit juice and beer clarification
- 20.6.6 Improving silage
- 20.6.7 Lignocellulosic bioconversions
- 20.6.8 Xylanases in textile processing
- 20.6.9 Bioenergy
- 20.7 Xylanases: Challenges
- 20.8 Conclusion and Future Prospects
- References
- 21: Microbial Chitinase: Production and Potential Applications
- Abstract
- 21.1 Introduction
- 21.2 General Structure and Properties of Chitin
- 21.2.1 α-Chitin
- 21.2.2 β-Chitin
- 21.2.3 γ-Chitin
- 21.3 General Structure, Properties and Classification of Chitinase
- 21.4 Source of Microbial Chitinase
- 21.4.1 Bacterial chitinase
- 21.4.2 Fungal chitinase
- 21.5 Production of Chitinase
- 21.5.1 Submerged fermentation (SmF) system
- Carbon sources
- Nitrogen sources
- Metal ions
- 21.5.2 Solid state fermentation (SSF) system
- 21.5.3 Statistical optimization of chitinase production
- 21.5.4 Purification of chitinase and its characterization
- pH
- Temperature
- Metal ions and inhibitors
- Molecular mass
- 21.5.1 Submerged fermentation (SmF) system
- 21.6 Applications of Chitinase
- 21.6.1 Antifungal properties of chitinase
- 21.6.2 Chitinases and transgenic plants
- 21.6.3 Chitinases as a biopesticide
- 21.6.4 Isolation of protoplasts
- 21.6.5 Medical applications of chitinase
- 21.6.6 Production of chito-oligosaccharides
- 21.6.7 Chitinase as a mosquitocidal agent
- 21.6.8 Chitinase as a nematicidal agent
- 21.6.9 Treatment of chitinous waste
- 21.7 Recent Patents and their Significance
- References
- 22: Characteristics of Microbial Inulinases: Physical and Chemical Bases of their Activity Regulation
- Abstract
- 22.1 Introduction
- 22.2 Physical and Chemical Properties of Inulinases
- 22.3 Correlation Between Amino Acid Sequences of Inulinases and their Physical and Chemical Properties
- 22.4 Immobilization – One of the Ways of Regulating Inulinase Activity
- 22.5 Mechanisms of Interaction between Inulinase and the Matrices of Ion Exchange Materials
- 22.6 Conclusion
- Acknowledgements
- References
- 23: Microbial Resources for Biopolymer Production
- Abstract
- 23.1 Introduction
- 23.2 Biopolymer Production by Bacteria: Biosynthesis and Applications
- 23.2.1 Bacterial cellulose (BC)
- 23.2.2 Xanthan
- 23.2.3 Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA)
- 23.2.4 Summary of bacterial polymers
- 23.3 Biopolymer Production by Fungi and Yeasts: Biosynthesis and Applications
- 23.3.1 Chitin and chitosan
- 23.3.2 Pullulan
- 23.3.3 Glucan and the chitin–glucan complex (CGC)
- 23.3.4 Summary of fungal polymers
- 23.4 Final Remarks and Future Prospects
- Acknowledgements
- References
- 24: Microbial Metabolites in the Cosmetics Industry
- Abstract
- 24.1 Introduction
- 24.2 Microbially Produced CompatibleSolutes in Cosmetic Applications
- 24.2.1 Ectoines
- 24.2.2 Ectoines in the cosmetics industry
- 24.3 Kojic Acid (CAS# 501-30-4)
- 24.3.1 Characterization, preparation and application of kojic acid
- 24.4 Botulinum Toxin (CAS# 93384-43-1)
- 24.5 Microbial Polysaccharides
- 24.5.1 Hyaluronic acid (HA) (CAS# 9004-61-9)
- 24.5.2 Xanthan (CAS# 11138-66-2)
- 24.5.3 Pullulan (CAS# 9057-02-7)
- 24.5.4 Kefiran (CAS# 86753-15-3)
- 24.5.5 Alginic acid (CAS# 9005-32-7)
- 24.6 Medicinal Compounds from Mushrooms Used for Cosmetic Applications
- 24.6.1 Mushroom cosmeceutical products
- 24.6.2 Mushroom tyrosinase inhibitors
- 24.6.3 Chitin–glucan
- 24.7 Microbial Derivatives as FunctionalCosmetics
- 24.7.1 Depigmenting material from microbialderivatives
- 24.7.2 Functional cosmetics and photoageing caused by UVB irradiation
- 24.8 Conclusion and Future Prospects
- References
- 25: Fungi of the Genus Pleurotus: Importance and Applications
- Abstract
- 25.1 Introduction
- 25.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass
- 25.2.1 Pleurotus production usingligno cellulosic biomass as a substrate
- 25.3 Pleurotus Species
- 25.3.1 Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.:Fr) Kummer
- 25.3.2 Pleurotus florida Eger
- 25.3.3 Pleurotus eryngii (DC.:Fr) Quel
- 25.3.4 Pleurotus sajor-caju Fr.:Fr.
- 25.3.5 Pleurotus cystidiosus O.K. Mill (P. abalonus Han, Chen & Cheng)
- 25.3.6 Pleurotus cornucopiae (Paulet) Rolland
- 25.3.7 Pleurotus djamor (Rumph. ex Fr.)
- 25.3.8 Pleurotus pulmonarius (Fr.) Quél.
- 25.4 Improvements to Pleurotus Strains
- 25.5 Nutritional Importance of the Genus Pleurotus
- 25.6 Medicinal and Therapeutic Properties of Pleurotus Species
- 25.6.1 Antioxidants
- 25.6.2 Hypocholesterolaemic agents
- 25.6.3 Antitumour agents
- 25.6.4 Importance of glucans
- 25.7 Production of Industrial Enzymes by Pleurotus
- 25.7.1 Oxidase enzymes
- Manganese peroxidase (MnP)
- Versatile peroxidase (VP)
- Laccases
- 25.7.2 Hydrolase enzymes
- Cellulases
- Xylanases
- Proteases
- 25.7.1 Oxidase enzymes
- 25.8 Bioremediation of Contaminated Soils and Water Using Pleurotus
- 25.9 Conclusion
- References
- 26: Useful Microorganisms for Environmental Sustainability: Application of Heavy Metal Tolerant Consortia for Surface Water Decontamination in Natural and Artificial Wetlands
- Abstract
- 26.1 Introduction
- 26.2 Study Case
- 26.3 Methodology
- 26.3.1 Toxicity test
- 26.3.2 Reactors
- 26.3.3 Inoculation of reactors 1 and 3
- 26.3.4 Statistical analysis
- 26.4 Results and Discussion
- 26.4.1 Toxicity test
- 26.4.2 Reactor experiment
- 26.4.3 Heavy metals removal
- Mercury removal
- Lead removal
- Chromium removal
- 26.5 Conclusion
- 26.6 Final Remarks
- Acknowledgements
- Note
- References
- 27: Exopolysaccharide (EPS)-producing Bacteria: an Ideal Source of Biopolymers
- Abstract
- 27.1 Introduction
- 27.1.1 Gelling agent
- 27.1.2 Medical applications
- 27.1.3 Source of monosaccharides
- 27.1.4 Emulsifiers
- 27.1.5 Heavy metal removal
- 27.1.6 Enhanced oil recovery
- 27.2 Sources of EPS-producing Isolates
- 27.3 Isolation of EPS-producing Bacteria
- 27.4 EPS Recovery
- 27.5 Quantification of EPS
- 27.6 Purification of EPS
- 27.7 Examples of Some CommerciallyUsed Bacterial EPS
- 27.7.1 Dextran
- 27.7.2 Xanthan gum
- 27.7.3 Curdlan
- References
- 28: Microbial Process Development for Fermentation-based Biosurfactant Production
- Abstract
- 28.1 Introduction
- 28.2 Biosurfactants
- 28.3 Characteristics of Biosurfactants
- 28.4 Fermentation Requirements
- 28.5 Production of Biosurfactants
- 28.6 Monitoring of Biosurfactant Production
- 28.7 Downstream Processing of Biosurfactants
- 28.8 General Applications of Biosurfactants
- 28.8.1 Environmental applications
- 28.8.2 Agricultural applications
- 28.8.3 Food industry applications
- 28.8.4 Cosmetic industry applications
- 28.8.5 Application as antimicrobials
- 28.9 Conclusion
- References
- 29: Recent Developments on Algal Biofuel Technology
- Abstract
- 29.1 Introduction
- 29.2 Algal Growth
- 29.2.1 Open ponds
- 29.2.2 Photobioreactors (PBRs)
- 29.3 Separation Techniques
- 29.3.1 Flocculation
- 29.3.2 Sedimentation
- 29.3.3 Centrifugation
- 29.3.4 Filtration
- 29.3.5 Ultrasound
- 29.3.6 Biologically based harvesting methods
- 29.4 Drying Methods
- 29.5 Lipid Extraction
- 29.5.1 Supercritical CO2 extraction
- 29.5.2 Electrical extraction
- 29.5.3 Solvents
- 29.6 Lipid Conversion
- 29.7 Alternative Products
- 29.8 Concerns, Limitations and Further Thoughts
- References
- 30: Microbial Lipases: Emerging Biocatalysts
- Abstract
- 30.1 Introduction
- 30.2 Three-dimensional Structure of Bacterial Lipase Enzyme
- 30.3 Mechanism of Lipolysis
- 30.4 Lipase Production
- 30.5 Secretion of Extracellular Lipase
- 30.6 Applications of Bacterial Lipase
- 30.6.1 Hydrolysis of oils and fats
- 30.6.2 Interesterification of oils and fats
- 30.6.3 Esterification of fatty acids
- 30.6.4 Flavour development in dairy products
- 30.6.5 Applications in the detergen tindustry
- 30.6.6 Lipases in the food industry
- 30.6.7 Lipases in biomedical applications
- 30.6.8 Lipases in the synthesis of pesticides
- 30.6.9 Lipases in the leather industry
- 30.6.10 Lipases in environmental management
- 30.6.11 Lipases in the cosmetics and perfume industry
- 30.7 Conclusion
- References
- 31: Bioremediation of Gaseous and Liquid Hydrogen Sulfide Pollutants by Microbial Oxidation
- Abstract
- 31.1 Introduction
- 31.2 Biological Conversion of Sulfide into Elemental Sulfur
- 31.3 Sulfur-oxidizing Bacteria (SOB)
- 31.4 Factors Affecting Sulfide Oxidation
- 31.4.1 Effect of oxygen rate
- 31.4.2 Effect of pH
- 31.4.3 Effect of temperature
- 31.5 Conclusion
- References
- 32: Archaea, a Useful Group for Unconventional Energy Production: Methane Production From Sugarcane Secondary Distillation Effluents Using Thermotolerant Strains
- Abstract
- 32.1 Introduction
- 32.2 Theoretical Considerations
- 32.2.1 Classification of living organisms
- 32.2.2 Methanogenic archaea
- 32.2.3 Main substrates used by methanogenic archaea
- 32.2.4 Molecular tools and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE)
- 32.3 Methodology
- 32.3.1 Assessment of vinasses composition
- 32.3.2 Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactors
- 32.3.3 Isolating, identifying and establishing the growth kinetics of methanogenic organisms
- Selection of the optimum working dilution
- General culture media incubation
- Specific culture media incubation
- Selective culture media incubation
- Quantification using the most probable number (MPN) technique
- Direct plate counting method
- Growth kinetics for each selective culture medium
- Confocal microscopy and scanning electron microscopy
- 32.3.4 Molecular analysis of the methanogenic community composition
- PCR amplification
- DGGE
- Reamplification, sequencing and phylogenetic analysis
- 32.4 Results and Discussion
- 32.4.1 Vinasses composition
- 32.4.2 Identification and growth kinetics of methanogenic organisms
- Archaea – traditional identification
- Methanogenic archaea and SRO quantification using the MPN technique: growth kinetics
- Comparison of data obtained in this study with previous data
- 32.4.3 Molecular analysis of the methanogeniccommunity composition
- Phylogenetic reconstructions for methanogenic archaea in the UASB reactors
- 32.5 Concluding Remarks
- Acknowledgements
- Note
- References
- 33: Industrial Additives Obtained Through Microbial Biotechnology: Biosurfactants and Prebiotic Carbohydrates
- Abstract
- 33.1 Biotechnology: Useful Products for the Future of Industry
- 33.2 Prebiotic Carbohydrates
- 33.2.1 Chemical structure and types of non-digestibleoligosaccharides (NDOs)
- 33.2.2 Technologies for the production of NDOs
- Fructooligosaccharides (FOS)
- Galactooligosaccharides (GOS)
- Xylooligosaccharides (XOS)
- 33.2.3 Main applications: research and industry
- 33.3 Biosurfactants
- 33.3.1 Production of biosurfactants from residues and application of statistical methods for process optimization
- 33.3.2 Promising environmental applications of biosurfactants
- 33.4 Concluding Remarks
- Acknowledgements
- References
- 34: Industrial Additives Obtained Through Microbial Biotechnology: Bioflavours and Biocolourants
- Abstract
- 34.1 Biotechnology: Useful Products for the Future of Industry
- 34.2 Bioflavours and Aroma Compounds Obtained by Microbial Biotechnology
- 34.2.1 Bioflavours: microbial production and potential
- 34.3 Biocolourants
- 34.3.1 Biocolourants: microbial production and potential
- 34.4 Trends and Prospects for New Industrial Additives
- 34.4.1 Additives fitting the sensory trend
- 34.4.2 Prospects for additives for the healthiness and wellness trend
- 34.5 Advances in Biotechnology for New Industrial Additives
- 34.6 Use of ‘Omics’ Tools in Searching for New Bioproducts
- 34.7 Concluding Remarks
- Acknowledgements
- References
- 35: Actinomycetes in Biodiscovery: Genomic Advances and New Horizons
- Abstract
- 35.1 Introduction
- 35.2 Contributions of Actinomycetes to Biodiscovery
- 35.2.1 Antibiotics: early years (1940–1974) to mid-era (1975–2000)
- 35.2.2 New age (2001 onwards): genomics-inspired discovery of bioactive compounds
- 35.3 Genome Mining
- 35.3.1 Cryptic secondary metabolite pathways
- 35.3.2 Diverse enzymology and biosynthetic pathways
- 35.3.3 Polyketides and non-ribosomal peptides
- 35.3.4 Ribosomal natural products
- 35.3.5 Evolutionary systems biology
- 35.3.6 Bioinformatics
- 35.3.7 Extracellular microbial environment and metabolomics
- 35.3.8 Microbiomics
- 35.3.9 Target-directed screening for antibiotic activity
- 35.4 Actinomycetes in Nature
- 35.4.1 Natural roles of antibiotics
- 35.4.2 Metagenomics
- 35.4.3 Resistome concept in relation to antibiotic discovery
- 35.4.4 Target-directed search and recovery of bioactive microorganisms
- 35.5 Future Prospects
- Acknowledgements
- References
- 36: Molecular Strategies for the Study of the Expression of Gene Variation by Real-time PCR
- Abstract
- 36.1 Introduction
- 36.2 Theory of Real-time PCR
- 36.2.1 Chemistry: types of fluorophores
- 36.2.2 Strategies for RNA quantification by real-time PCR
- Absolute quantification
- Relative quantification
- 36.2.3 Normalization
- 36.2.4 Optimization of qPCR
- 36.2.5 Applications
- 36.3 Conditions for Quantification of Gene Expression of bgl-A, bgl and CspA from Shewanella sp. G5 Cultures
- 36.3.1 Methods
- Culture conditions
- RNA extraction and cDNA synthesis
- Design of oligonucleotide primers to detect b-glucosidase genes by conventional PCR
- Real-time PCR assay
- Standard curves and normalization
- Relative quantification and data analysis
- 36.3.2 Results and discussion
- Analysis of designing primers for genes of interest
- Primer evaluation by conventional PCR
- Optimization of real-time PCR
- Normalization with the reference gene and generation of standard curves
- Relative quantification analyses applying the 2–ΔΔCt method
- 36.3.1 Methods
- 36.4 Conclusion
- References
- 37: Whole Genome Sequence Typing Strategies for Enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli of the O157:H7 Serotype
- Abstract
- 37.1 Introduction
- 37.2 Typing Methodologies and Resolution Power
- 37.2.1 Multi-locus enzymeel ectrophoresis (MLEE) and sequencing typing
- 37.2.2 Phage susceptibility assay
- 37.2.3 Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE)
- 37.2.4 Metabolic typing
- 37.2.5 Octamer-based genome scanning (OBGS) typing assay
- 37.2.6 Multiple-locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA)
- 37.2.7 Shiga-toxin-producing bacteriophage insertion site typing (SBI)
- 37.2.8 Lineage-specific polymorphism assay (LSPA)
- 37.2.9 Whole genome mapping (WGM)
- 37.2.10 Comparative genome hybridization
- 37.2.11 Genome-wide association studies (GWAS)
- 37.3 Historical View of E. coli O157:H7 Genomics
- 37.4 Whole Genome Sequence Typing
- 37.5 Impact of NGS Technologies
- 37.6 Typing Isolates Based on the Virulence Complement
- 37.7 Conclusions
- Acknowledgements
- References
- 38: Microbial Keratinases: Characteristics, Biotechnological Applications and Potential
- Abstract
- 38.1 Introduction
- 38.2 Characteristics and Properties of Keratinases
- 38.2.1 Optimal pH and temperature
- 38.2.2 Biochemical properties of keratinases
- 38.2.3 Chemical properties of keratinases
- 38.2.4 Keratinous substrates and their specificities
- 38.2.5 Mechanism of keratinolysis
- 38.3 Sources of Microbial Keratinases
- 38.4 Optimization of Keratinase Production
- 38.5 Established Applications of Keratinases
- 38.5.1 Waste management
- 38.5.2 Agroindustry
- Animal feed and feed supplements
- Fertilizers
- 38.5.3 Leather and textile industry
- 38.5.4 Consumer products
- Detergent
- Personal care products
- 38.5.5 Pharmaceutical industry
- 38.5.6 Prion decontamination
- 38.6 Potential Applications of Keratinases
- 38.6.1 Biological control
- 38.6.2 Green energy
- 38.6.3 Silk degumming
- 38.6.4 Other applications
- 38.7 Conclusion
- References
- 39: Philippine Fungal Diversity: Benefits and Threats to Food Security
- Abstract
- 39.1 Introduction
- 39.2 The Genesis and Development of Philippine Mycology
- 39.3 Case study 1: Biological Control of Plant Pathogens
- 39.4 Case Study 2: Microbial Gifts for Agriculture
- 39.5 Case Study 3. Breeding for Resistance Against Cereal Blast
- 39.6 Case Study 4. Mycotoxins in Maize
- References
- Index
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