"In the last two decades, the quest for a widely accepted definition of social enterprise has been a central issue in a great number of publications. The main objective of the ICSEM Project on which this book is based was to show that the social enterprise field would benefit much more from linking conceptualisation efforts to the huge diversity of social enterprises than from an additional and ambitious attempt at providing an encompassing definition. Starting from a hypothesis that could be termed "the impossibility of a unified definition", the ICSEM research strategy relied on bottom-up approaches to capture the social enterprise phenomenon in its local and national contexts. This strategy made it possible to take into account and give legitimacy to locally embedded approaches, while simultaneously allowing for the identification of major social enterprise models to delineate the field on common grounds at the international level. Social Enterprise in Western Europe -the third volume in a series of four ICSEM-based books on social enterprise worldwide - will serve as a key reference and resource for teachers, researchers, students, experts, policy makers, journalists and others who want to acquire a broad understanding of the social enterprise and social entrepreneurship phenomena as they emerge and develop in this region"--.

• Cover
• Half Title
• Series Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• Preface and Acknowledgements
• Editors
• Contributors
• Introduction: Documenting, Theorising, Mapping and Testing the Plurality of SE Models in Western Europe
  • 0.1. Documenting SE Diversity (Phase 1 of the ICSEM Project)
    • 0.1.1. Country-Based Contributions about the SE Landscape
    • 0.1.2. Transversal and Comparative Analyses
  • 0.2. Theorising and Mapping Major SE Models (Phase 2 of the ICSEM Project)
    • 0.2.1. Three "Principles of Interest" as a Cornerstone
    • 0.2.2. Market Reliance and the Resource Mix as Key Issues
    • 0.2.3. Institutional Logics Generating SE Models
    • 0.2.4. Social Missions across Models
  • 0.3. Testing SE Models (Phase 3 of the ICSEM Project)
  • Notes
  • References
• Part I: National Overviews of Social Enterprise
• 1. Unity in Diversity: Exploring the Multiple Facets of the Belgian Social Enterprise Landscape
  • Introduction
  • 1.1. Historical Roots
    • 1.1.1. The Associative Tradition
    • 1.1.2. The Cooperative Tradition
    • 1.1.3. The Tradition of Mutuals
    • 1.1.4. The Inputs of Public Policies
    • 1.1.5. Philanthropy and Social Investment
    • 1.1.6. A More Business-Oriented Approach
  • 1.2. Legal Evolution and Public Policies
  • 1.3. Statistics and Characteristics of Social Enterprise in Belgium
    • 1.3.1. Four Main SE Models
    • 1.3.2. Number of Social Enterprises
    • 1.3.3. Fields of Activity
    • 1.3.4. Employment in Social Enterprises
  • Conclusion
  • Acknowledgements
  • Note
  • References
• 2. Social Enterprise in Denmark: Historical, Contextual and Conceptual Aspects
  • Introduction
  • 2.1. Institutional Trajectories of Social Enterprise in Denmark: Strong Roots in Social Movements and State Formation
    • 2.1.1. First Period: Development of the Cooperative Sector
    • 2.1.2. Second Period: Interrelated Crises
    • 2.1.3. Third Period: Emergence and Institutionalisation of Social Enterprise
  • 2.2. Legal Forms of Social Enterprise in Denmark
    • 2.2.1. Association (Forening)
    • 2.2.2. Self-Governing Institutions (Selvejende Institution)
    • 2.2.3. Public-Utility Funds (Almennyttige Fonde)
    • 2.2.4. Cooperatives (Andelsselskab)
  • 2.3. The Innovative and Entrepreneurial Welfare State
  • 2.4. The Danish Ecosystem of Social Enterprise
  • 2.5. Significant Conception(s) and Practices of Social Enterprise: Five Platforms
  • Conclusion
  • Notes
  • References
• 3. A New Typology of Social Enterprise in Finland: Capturing the Diversity
  • Introduction
  • 3.1. The Finnish Context for Social Enterprises
    • 3.1.1. Social-Economy Organisations in the Finnish Welfare State
    • 3.1.2. Evolution of New Social Enterprises
  • 3.2. Institutionalised and Non-Institutionalised Social Enterprises
  • 3.3. New Typology of Finnish Social Enterprises and Illustrative Examples
    • 3.3.1. Social Enterprises Providing Public (welfare) Services
      • Overall Description
      • An Example: "Charitable Foundation"
    • 3.3.2. Emerging Alternative Economic Initiatives
      • Overall Description
      • An Example: "Wind Energy Ltd"
    • 3.3.3. Impact Businesses and "Smart-Ups"
      • Overall Description
      • An Example: "Employee-Owned Interpreters' Cooperative"
    • 3.3.4. Social-Impact Redistributors
      • Overall Description
      • An Example: "Impact Investor Ltd"
  • 3.4. Findings
    • 3.4.1. Social Value: Input, Output, Process and Profit Distribution
    • 3.4.2. Comparing Finnish Typology to ICSEM Models
  • Conclusion
  • Acknowledgements
  • Notes
  • References
• 4. Social Enterprise in France: At the Crossroads of the Social Economy, Solidarity Economy and Social Entrepreneurship?
  • Introduction
  • 4.1. Social Enterprise and the SSE: Historical Overview of Their Institutionalisation Process
  • 4.2. Three Models of Social Enterprise
    • 4.2.1. General-Interest and Multiple-Stakeholder Organisations
    • 4.2.2. Entrepreneurial Associations
    • 4.2.3. Commercial Businesses with a Social Purpose and Social Entrepreneurs
  • 4.3. Social Enterprises: Between Rupture and Continuity
  • Conclusion
  • Notes
  • References
• 5. Social Enterprise in Germany: Between Institutional Inertia, Innovation and Cooperation
  • Introduction
  • 5.1. The SE Debate in Germany
  • 5.2. Development and Models of "Social Enterprise" in Germany
    • 5.2.1. Associative Tradition, Charitable Roots and the Development of the Welfare State
    • 5.2.2. Cooperative Traditions
    • 5.2.3. Mutual Traditions
    • 5.2.4. Philanthropic Traditions
    • 5.2.5. Work-Inclusion and Work-Integration Social Enterprises (WISEs)
      • Work Inclusion of Persons with Disabilities
      • Work Integration for Long-Term Unemployed Persons
    • 5.2.6. From Community Action to Neighbourhood and Community Enterprises
    • 5.2.7. Business Background
  • 5.3. Promotion by Public Authorities
  • 5.4. Societal Environment for Social Enterprise in Germany
    • 5.4.1. General Socio-Economic Influences
    • 5.4.2. Institutional Landscape of the Welfare System
    • 5.4.3. Social-Policy Environment
  • 5.5. Current Conceptual Debate in Germany
  • Conclusion
  • Notes
  • References
• 6. Social Enterprise in Iceland: The Long Journey Towards a Hybrid Welfare Model
  • Introduction
  • 6.1. Historical Roots of Icelandic Social Enterprise
    • 6.1.1. Industrialisation and Mass Movements at the Turn of the 20th Century
    • 6.1.2. Continued Importance of Associations in the Developing Icelandic Welfare System in the First Half of the 20th Century
    • 6.1.3. From Informal Relations between the State and NPOs to New Public Management in the Late 20th Century
    • 6.1.4. Increasingly Formalised Relations between Third-Sector Organisations and the State in the Aftermath of the 2008 Crisis
  • 6.2. Categories of Social Enterprises
    • 6.2.1. Entrepreneurial Non-Profits
    • 6.2.2. Public-Sector Social Enterprises
    • 6.2.3. Social Cooperatives
  • 6.3. Policy, Legal Environment and Support
  • Conclusion
  • Notes
  • References
• 7. Social Enterprise in Ireland: State Support Key to the Predominance of Work-Integration Social Enterprise (WISE)
  • Introduction
  • 7.1. Social Enterprise in Irish Academic Discourse—US and European Influences
  • 7.2. Social Enterprise in Irish Policy Discourse
    • 7.2.1. The First Two Decades: The 1990s and 2000s
    • 7.2.2. Emerging from Recession: A New Definition
    • 7.2.3. A New National Social Enterprise Policy for Ireland (2019-2022)
  • 7.3. WISEs: A Typical Operational Model in Ireland
    • 7.3.1. Legal Form and Governance Structure
    • 7.3.2. Social Objectives and Sustainability
    • 7.3.3. Goods and Services Provided
    • 7.3.4. Challenges for WISEs
      • Limitation of the Labour-Market Pool
      • Lack of Business and Leadership Skills
      • Unstable Resource Environments
  • Conclusions
  • Notes
  • References
• 8. Social Enterprise in Italy: A Plurality of Business and Organisational Models
  • Introduction
  • 8.1. Evolution of Italian Social Enterprises
    • 8.1.1. The 1970s: Emergence of a Growing Gap between the Demand for and Supply of Social Services
    • 8.1.2. The 1980s: Emergence of an Organised Civic Response to the New Needs
    • 8.1.3. The 1990s: Recognition of Voluntary Organisations and Social Cooperatives
    • 8.1.4. The 2000s: Recognition of Social Enterprises' Pluralism
  • 8.2. Research Methodology and General Context
  • 8.3. Social Cooperatives
  • 8.4. Social Enterprises Operating under the Associative Form
  • 8.5. Social Enterprises Operating under the Forms of Foundations and Religious Institutions
  • 8.6. Limited-Company Social Enterprises
  • Conclusion
  • Notes
  • References
• 9. Social Enterprise in the Netherlands: Between Hope and Hype
  • Introduction
  • 9.1. Understanding Concepts and Context
    • 9.1.1. Definition and Legal Status
    • 9.1.2. The Debate about Social Enterprise in the Netherlands
    • 9.1.3. Historical Context
  • 9.2. Identification of SE Models
    • 9.2.1. Mapping the SE Sector
      • Size and Evolution of the Sector
      • Areas of Activity
      • Size and Legal Form of the Initiatives
      • Failure Rate
      • Age of Entrepreneurs and Enterprises
      • Financial Results
      • Impact
    • 9.2.2. Synthetic Analysis
  • 9.3. Social Enterprises' Relations with Public Authorities
  • Conclusion
  • Notes
  • References
• 10. Social Enterprises in Norway: Models and Institutional Trajectories
  • Introduction
  • 10.1. Historical and Institutional Context for Social Enterprise in Norway
  • 10.2. Main SE Models in Norway
  • 10.3. Institutional Trajectories and Future Developments
  • Conclusion
  • Notes
  • References
• 11. Social Enterprise in Portugal: Concepts, Contexts and Models
  • Introduction
  • 11.1. Understanding Concepts and Context
    • 11.1.1. Social Enterprise in Research
    • 11.1.2. The Political Debate About Social Enterprise
    • 11.1.3. Other Related Concepts
    • 11.1.4. Governmental Programmes and Measures
  • 11.2. SE Models in Portugal
    • 11.2.1. The Entrepreneurial Non-Profit (ENP) Model
    • 11.2.2. The Work-Integration Social Enterprise (WISE) Model
    • 11.2.3. The Social-Cooperative (SC) Model
    • 11.2.4. The Solidarity-Economy Enterprise Model
    • 11.2.5. The Social-Business Model
  • Conclusion
  • Notes
  • References
• 12. Social Enterprise in Spain: From a Diversity of Roots to a Tentative Typology of Models
  • Introduction
  • 12.1. Understanding Concepts and Context
  • 12.2. Identification of SE Models
    • 12.2.1. Methodology and Data Collection Strategy
    • 12.2.2. Results: Analysis by Fields of Activity and Groups
      • Work and Social Integration
        • Group 1: Work-integration Social Enterprises (WISEs)
        • Group 2: Special-employment Centres (SECs)
      • Education
        • Group 1: Traditional Teaching Cooperatives and Foundations
        • Group 2: Foundations
      • Social and Health Services
        • Group 1: Social Enterprises Related to Public Utilities
        • Group 2: Social Enterprises Owned by Private Organisations
      • Local/Rural Development
        • Group 1: Small Farming/Agricultural Businesses
        • Group 2: Rural-development Organisations
      • Culture
        • Group 1: Cooperatives with an Entrepreneurial Drive
        • Group 2: Worker-consumer Cultural Cooperatives
      • International cooperation/fair trade
        • Group 1: Fair-trade Importing Organisations
        • Group 2: Fair-trade Small Shops
      • Financial Intermediation
        • Group 1: Ethical Financial Cooperatives
        • Group 2: Ethical Financial Foundations
      • Sustainable Development/Energy
        • Group 1: Companies Striving for a Sustainable World
        • Group 2: Companies Using Sustainability as a Business Strategy
    • 12.2.3. Identification of SE Models
  • Conclusion
  • Notes
  • References
• 13. Social Enterprises in Sweden: Intertextual Consensus and Hidden Paradoxes
  • Introduction
  • 13.1. Concepts in (Swedish) Context
    • 13.1.1. Historical Trajectory
    • 13.1.2. Current Context and State of the Art of Social Enterprise in Sweden
  • 13.2. Identification of SE models
    • 13.2.1. Work-Integration Social Enterprises (WISEs)
    • 13.2.2. Non-Profit Social Enterprises
    • 13.2.3. Social-Purpose Businesses
    • 13.2.4. Societal Entrepreneurship
  • 13.3. Institutional Trajectories of Social Enterprises in Sweden
    • 13.3.1. Current Explicit Policy Measures
    • 13.3.2. Social Enterprises in the Welfare Triangle
    • 13.3.3. Social Enterprise in Sweden: Intertextual Consensus and Hidden Paradoxes
  • Conclusion
  • Notes
  • References
• 14. Social Enterprise Approaches in Switzerland
  • Introduction
  • 14.1. The Traditional Third-Sector Approach to Social Enterprise
  • 14.2. New Approaches to Social Enterprise
    • 14.2.1. Social Enterprises as SSE Organisations
    • 14.2.2. Social Enterprises as ECG Organisations
    • 14.2.3. Social enterprises as Social-Entrepreneurship Actors
  • 14.3. Challenges
    • 14.3.1. Blurry SE Boundaries and New Synergies
    • 14.3.2. Public-Policy and Research Context
  • Conclusion
  • Notes
  • References
• 15. Social Enterprise in the UK: Models and Trajectories
  • Introduction
  • 15.1. Different Types of Social Enterprise
  • 15.2. Illustrations of British Social Enterprises in Three Fields
    • 15.2.1. Work-Integration Social Enterprises (WISEs)
    • 15.2.2. Community Businesses
    • 15.2.3. Social Enterprises Providing Public Services
  • 15.3. History, Policy and Context
    • 15.3.1. UK Concept of Social Enterprise
    • 15.3.2. Legal Structures
    • 15.3.3. Understanding the British Context Through the Discourse-Historical Approach
      • 1997-2000: The Construction of an SE "Movement"
      • 2001-2005: Business Solutions to Social Problems
      • 2006-2009: Moving in with the Third Sector
      • 2010-2015: New Government, Same Direction?
      • 2016-2018: A Period of Uncertainty
  • Conclusion
  • References
• Part II: Comparative Analyses and Perspectives
• 16. Social Enterprises in France, Portugal and Spain: Between Path Dependence and Institutional Creation?
  • Introduction
  • 16.1. An Institutional Framework
  • 16.2. Comparative Analysis of Environmental Evolutions: A Long Process of Institutionalisation Leading to Path Dependence
  • 16.3. Models of Social Enterprise
    • 16.3.1. Social or General-Interest Cooperatives
    • 16.3.2. Entrepreneurial Non-Profit Organisations
    • 16.3.3. Work-integration social enterprises
    • 16.3.4. The Social-Entrepreneurship Model
  • Conclusion
  • Note
  • References
• 17. Social Enterprise in Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands: Where the Old Meets the New
  • Introduction
  • 17.1. Historical Roots and Developments
    • 17.1.1. Voluntary Associations
    • 17.1.2. Cooperatives
    • 17.1.3. Mutual-Insurance Companies
    • 17.1.4. Philanthropic Organisations
    • 17.1.5. Work-Inclusion and Integration Providers
    • 17.1.6. Grassroots Initiatives
    • 17.1.7. Hybridity as a General Characteristic
  • 17.2. The Rise of New-Style Social Enterprises
  • 17.3. Developments in the SE Field
  • Conclusion
  • Acknowledgements
  • Notes
  • References
• 18. Between Coercive and Mimetic Institutional Isomorphism: Social Enterprise and the Universal Scandinavian Welfare State
  • Introduction
  • 18.1. The Scandinavian Welfare Model
  • 18.2. Welfare Policy Reforms in Scandinavia and their Implications for Social Enterprises
  • 18.3. The Development of Social Enterprise in Scandinavia
  • 18.4. Social Enterprise Between Coercive and Mimetic Isomorphism
  • Conclusion
  • Note
  • References
• 19. How Context Shapes the Character of Cooperative Social Enterprises: Insights from Various Countries
  • Introduction
  • 19.1. Terminological and Methodological Approach
  • 19.2. Development of an Analytical Framework
    • 19.2.1. Screening Process to Identify Distinctive Dimensions and Variants
    • 19.2.2. Contextual Factors Identified
    • 19.2.3. CSE's Characteristics Identified
  • 19.3. Identifying Interactions Between Contextual Factors and CSEs' Characteristics
    • 19.3.1. Overview of Interactions Identified
    • 19.3.2. Interplay Between Social-Economy-Related/Social Policies and CSEs' Characteristics
    • 19.3.3. Interplay Between Legal Provisions Regulating Cooperatives and Characteristics of CSEs
    • 19.3.4. Interplay Between the Availability of Alternative Legal Forms for Social Entrepreneurship and Main Characteristics of CSE
  • Conclusion
  • Notes
  • References
• 20. Testing the Relevance of Major Social Enterprise Models in Western Europe
  • Introduction
  • 20.1. The ICSEM Survey and Database
  • 20.2. A Hierarchical Cluster Analysis to Identify Major SE Categories
  • 20.3. SE Models in Western Europe: Which Profiles and Relevance?
    • 20.3.1. Two Clusters Converging Towards an Entrepreneurial Non-Profit SE Model
    • 20.3.2. Two Clusters Indicating the Existence of a Social-Cooperative SE Model
    • 20.3.3. One Cluster Indicating the Existence of a Social-Business Model
    • 20.3.4. No Public or Quasi-Public SE Model?
  • Conclusion
  • Notes
  • References
• Conclusion: Social Enterprise, Welfare Regimes and Policy Implications
  • 21.1. Social Enterprise and the Welfare State: A Historical Perspective
  • 22.2. Social Enterprises and their Ecosystems
  • 21.3. Policy Implications
    • 21.3.1 The Impossible Consensual Definition
    • 21.3.2 The Search for Heroic Social Entrepreneurs
    • 21.3.4 Isomorphic Pressures on WISEs
    • 21.3.5 Still Embryonic Distinct Ecosystems
  • 21.4. Synergies and Partnerships Ahead
  • References
• Index