"This book brings together expert opinions from scientists to consider the evidence for climate change and its impacts on ticks and tick-borne infections. It considers what is meant by 'climate change', how effective climate models are in relation to ecosystems, and provides predictions for changes in climate at global, regional and local scales relevant for ticks and tick-borne infections. It examines changes to tick distribution and the evidence that climate change is responsible. The effect of climate on the physiology and behaviour of ticks is stressed, including potentially critical impacts on the tick microbiome. Given that the notoriety of ticks derives from pathogens they transmit, the book considers whether changes in climate affect vector capacity. Ticks transmit a remarkable range of micro- and macro-parasites many of which are pathogens of humans and domesticated animals. The intimacy between a tick-borne agent and a tick vector means that any impacts of climate on a tick vector will impact tick-borne pathogens. Most obviously, such impacts will be apparent as changes in disease incidence and prevalence. The evidence that climate change is affecting diseases caused by tick-borne pathogens is considered, along with the potential to make robust predictions of future events"--Publisher's description.

• Cover
• Dedication
• Climate, Ticks and Disease
• Copyright
• Contents
• Contributors
• Preface
• eo1 Future Climate of Africa
  • 1.1 Expert Opinion
    • 1.1.1 Introduction
    • 1.1.2 What do we underst and aboutthe future climate of Africa?
    • 1.1.3 What are the likely impacts on agriculture and people’s livelihoods?
    • 1.1.4 Addressing the science gaps to support agricultural decision making
  • 1.2 Future Predictions
  • References
• eo2 Vegetation–Climate Interactions:Into the Tick Zone
  • 2.1 Expert Opinion
    • 2.1.1 Introduction
    • 2.1.2 The importance of scale and pattern
    • 2.1.3 Vegetation–climate interactions across scales
    • 2.1.4 Relevance for understanding ecological change
  • 2.2 Future Predictions
  • Disclaimer
  • References
• eo3 Climate Change and Lyme Disease
  • 3.1 Expert Opinion
    • 3.1.1 Introduction
    • 3.1.2 Climate effects on the tick vector life cycle
    • 3.1.3 Climate change
    • 3.1.4 The climate zone for Lyme disease
  • 3.2 Future Predictions
  • Acknowledgements
  • References
• eo4 How to Model the Impact of Climate Change on Vector-Borne Diseases?
  • 4.1 Expert Opinion
    • 4.1.1 Introduction
    • 4.1.2 A sea of mathematical models
  • 4.2 Future Predictions (Brief Modelling Guidelines)
  • References
• eo5 Challenges of Modelling and Projecting Tick Distributions
  • 5.1 Expert Opinion
    • 5.1.1 Introduction
    • 5.1.2 Setting the current baseline
    • 5.2 Future Predictions
  • References
• eo6 Considerations for Predicting Climate Change Implications on Future Spatial Distribution Ranges of Ticks
  • 6.1 Expert Opinion
  • 6.2 Future Predictions
  • References
• Synopsis: Climate
  • eo7 Can the Impact of Climate Change on the Tick Microbiome Bring a New Epidemiological Landscape to Tick-Borne Diseases?
    • 7.1 Expert Opinion
      • 7.1.1 Introduction
      • 7.1.2 The tick microbiome, a redundant source of microbial metabolic pathways
      • 7.1.3 Resistance of the tick microbiome to biotic disturbance
      • 7.1.4 Impact of temperature on tick microbiota
    • 7.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo8 Climate Influence on Tick Neurobiology
    • 8.1 Expert Opinion
      • 8.1.1 Introduction
      • 8.1.2 Tick nervous and sensory systems
      • 8.1.3 Impact of directional thermal stress on tick nervous system
      • 8.1.4 Impact of climate change-mediated desiccation stress on tick nervous systems
      • 8.1.5 Climate influence on the tick neuroendocrine system
      • 8.1.6 Other human-induced environmental factors impacting tick neural functions
    • 8.2 Future Predictions
    • Acknowledgement
    • References
  • eo9 The Impact of Climate Change on Tick Host-Seeking Behaviour
    • 9.1 Expert Opinion
      • 9.1.1 Introduction
      • 9.1.2 Abiotic environmental stimuli of questing behaviour
    • 9.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo10 Expected Transitions in Ticks and Their Heritable Endosymbionts Under Environmental Changes
    • 10.1 Expert Opinion
    • 10.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo11 Drought and Tick Dynamics During Climate Change
    • 11.1 Expert Opinion
      • 11.1.1 Maintenance of water balance is critical to tick off-host survival
      • 11.1.2 Drought, climate change and the impact on ticks
    • 11.2 Future Predictions
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
  • eo12 Climate Influences on Reproduction and Immunity in the Soft Tick, Ornithodoros moubata
    • 12.1 Expert Opinion
      • 12.1.1 Introduction
      • 12.1.2 Life cycle
      • 12.1.3 Regulation of reproduction
      • 12.1.4 Influences of climate on reproduction
      • 12.1.5 Immune responses
      • 12.1.6 Influences of climate on immune responses
    • 12.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo13 Climate Change and Ticks:Measuring Impacts
    • 13.1 Expert Opinion
      • 13.1.1 Introduction
      • 13.1.2 Evidence and its limitations
      • 13.1.3 Novel tools: metabolic rate measurement for detecting the impact of climate on ticks
    • 13.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo14 Scandinavia and Ticks in a Changing Climate
    • 14.1 Expert Opinion
      • 14.1.1 Introduction
      • 14.1.2 Present trends in distribution of endemic Ixodes ricinus ticks in Scandinavia
      • 14.1.3 Present trends in introduction of exotic ticks in Scandinavia
    • 14.2 Future Predictions
      • 14.2.1 Future distribution of endemic Ixodes ricinus ticks in Scandinavia
      • 14.2.2 Future risk of exotic ticks in Scandinavia
    • References
  • eo15 Birds, Ticks and Climate Change
    • 15.1 Expert Opinion
      • 15.1.1 Introduction
      • 15.1.2 Birds as vectors
      • 15.1.3 Climate change impacts on birds and bird migration
      • 15.1.4 Bird migration, ticks and climate change
        • Stage 1: source area – sub-Sahara
        • Stage 2: the journey
        • Stage 3: the receiving environment and climate change
      • 15.1.5 Climate change, birds and Ixodes ricinus
    • 15.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo16 How Tick Vectors are Coping with Global Warming
    • 16.1 Expert Opinion
      • 16.1.1 Introduction
      • 16.1.2 Ticks, tick-borne diseases
      • 16.1.3 Epidemiology of tick-borne diseases
      • 16.1.4 Effects of global warming in the epidemiology of tick-borne diseases
      • 16.1.5 Impact of global warming in the range of tick species
    • 16.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo17 Possible Direct and Human-Mediated Impact of Climate Change on Tick Populations in Turkey
    • 17.1 Expert Opinion
      • 17.1.1 Introduction: basic geographical, ecological and climate characteristics of Turkey
      • 17.1.2 General information on tick fauna in Turkey
    • 17.2 Future Predictions
      • 17.2.1 Hyalomma marginatum
      • 17.2.2 Hyalomma rufipes
      • 17.2.3 Hyalomma aegyptium
      • 17.2.4 Hyalomma excavatum
      • 17.2.5 Hyalomma anatolicum
      • 17.2.6 Hyalomma scupense
      • 17.2.7 Boophilus (Rhipicephalus) annulatus
      • 17.2.8 Rhipicephalus turanicus
      • 17.2.9 Rhipicephalus sanguineus
      • 17.2.10 Rhipicephalus bursa
      • 17.2.11 Ixodes ricinus
      • 17.2.12 Haemaphysalis spp. and Dermacentor spp.
    • References
  • eo18 Climate Change Alone Cannot Explain Altered Tick Distribution Across Europe: A Spotlight on Endemic and Invasive Tick Species
    • 18.1 Expert Opinion
      • 18.1.1 Introduction
      • 18.1.2 Impact on endemic populations:the Ixodes ricinus example
      • 18.1.3 Impact on invasive populations:the Hyalomma marginatum example
    • 18.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo19 Climate and Management Effects on Tick–Game Animal Dynamics
    • 19.1 Expert Opinion
      • 19.1.1 Introduction
      • 19.1.2 Evidence for climate effects on tick distribution and behaviour
      • 19.1.3 Game species as tick hosts
      • 19.1.4 Climate, habitat and management interactions
    • 19.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo20 Climate-Driven Livestock Management Shifts and Tick Populations
    • 20.1 Expert Opinion
      • 20.1.1 Introduction
      • 20.1.2 Climate change affects management decisions
      • 20.1.3 Humans affect ticks and pathogens via livestock management
        • Altered host composition
        • Habitat modification
        • Altered tick mortality
    • 20.2 Future Projections
      • 20.2.1 Key questions and considerations
      • 20.2.2 Climate futures and near-term projections
    • References
  • eo21 Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Medically Important Tick Species in North America
    • 21.1 Expert Opinion
      • 21.1.1 Introduction
      • 21.1.2 Tick biology
      • 21.1.3 Medically relevant hard tick species in the eastern USA and Canada
      • 21.1.4 Land use and anthropogenic factors
    • 21.2 Future Predictions
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
  • eo22 Climate Change and Tick Evolution: Lessons from the Past
    • 22.1 Expert Opinion
      • 22.1.1 Introduction
      • 22.1.2 Tick evolution and origins
      • 22.1.3 Climate change of major evolutionary periods
      • 22.1.4 The Anthropocene and the sixth mass extinction event
    • 22.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo23 Amblyomma Ticks and Future Climates
    • 23.1 Expert Opinion
      • 23.1.1 Introduction
      • 23.1.2 Climate change, ticks and tick-borne diseases
      • 23.1.3 Distribution of ticks in climate change scenarios
      • 23.1.4 Evidence against the impacts of climate change
    • 23.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo24 Climate Impacts on Dermacentor reticulatus Tick Population Dynamics and Range
    • 24.1 Expert Opinion
      • 24.1.1 Introduction
      • 24.1.2 Occurrence of Dermacentor reticulatus ticks in Europe versus progressive climate change
      • 24.1.3 Impact of climate on the dynamics of Dermacentor reticulatus populations
    • 24.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo25 Changes Expected in Ixodes ricinus Temporal and Spatial Distribution in Europe
    • 25.1 Expert Opinion
      • 25.1.1 Introduction
      • 25.1.2 Evidence of climate change impact on Ixodes ricinus spatial and temporal distribution
    • 25.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo26 Range Expansion of Ixodes scapularis in the USA
    • 26.1 Expert Opinion
      • 26.1.1 What is Ixodes scapularis ?
      • 26.1.2 Relict populations
      • 26.1.3 Forest history in the USA
      • 26.1.4 History of white-tailed deer
      • 26.1.5 History of Ixodes scapularis
      • 26.1.6 Mode of range expansion
      • 26.1.7 Establishment of I. scapularis -borne pathogens
      • 26.1.8 Alternative theories
    • 26.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo27 Distribution, Seasonal Occurrence and Biological Characteristics of Haemaphysalis longicornis, a Vector of Bovine Piroplasmosis in Japan
    • 27.1 Expert Opinion
      • 27.1.1 Introduction
      • 27.1.2 Distribution of Haemaphysalis longicornis in Japan
      • 27.1.3 Seasonal occurrence of Haemaphysalis longicornis in Japan
      • 27.1.4 Protozoan parasites transmitted by Haemaphysalis longicornis in Japan
    • 27.2 Future Predictions
    • Disclaimer
    • References
  • eo28 Climate and Vector Potential of Medically Important North American Ticks
    • 28.1 Expert Opinion
      • 28.1.1 Introduction
      • 28.1.2 The black-legged tick, Ixodes scapularis
      • 28.1.3 The lone star tick, Amblyomma americanum
      • 28.1.4 The American dog tick, Dermacentor variabilis
    • 28.2 Future Predictions
    • Disclaimer
    • References
  • eo29 The Impact of Climate Change on the Biology of the Cattle Tick, Rhipicephalus microplus: Current Knowledge and Gaps to be Filled
    • 29.1 Expert Opinion
      • 29.1.1 Introduction
      • 29.1.2 Climate change and off-host ecology of Rhipicephalus microplus
      • 29.1.3 Climate and management systems of cattle that affect the free-living stage of Rhipicephalus microplus , including biological control
      • 29.1.4 Climate change and on-host ecology of Rhipicephalus microplus
      • 29.1.5 Climate change and factors that affect host specificity
      • 29.1.6 Impact of climate change on the vectorial capacity of Rhipicephalus microplus
    • 29.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo30 Climate Impacts on the Vector Capacity of Tropical and Temperate Populations of the Brown Dog Tick, Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato
    • 30.1 Expert Opinion
      • 30.1.1 Introduction
      • 30.1.2 Effect of climate changes ondistributi on of Rhipicephalus sanguineus lineages
      • 30.1.3 Effect of climate changes on distribution and abundance of Rhipicephalus sanguineus lineages
      • 30.1.4 Effect of climate changes on vector competence of Rhipicephalus sanguineus lineages
    • 30.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo31 Argasidae: Distribution and Vectorial Capacity in a Changing Global Environment
    • 31.1 Expert Opinion
      • 31.1.1 Introduction
      • 31.1.2 Lack of accessible baseline information on soft tick ecology and distributions. Is there more diversity than we currently know?
      • 31.1.3 Physiological limits as a basis for the mechanistic understanding of soft tick distributions
      • 31.1.4 Characteristics of the unique ecological niches of soft ticks
      • 31.1.5 Global environmental change and anthropogenic influence on soft tick distributions
    • 31.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo32 Effects of Climate Change on Babesiosis Vectors
    • 32.1 Expert Opinion
      • 32.1.1 Introduction
      • 32.1.2 Evidence for climate change impact on babesiosis vectors
        • Ixodes ricinus
        • Dermacentor reticulatus
        • Haemaphysalis punctata
        • Hyalomma spp.
      • 32.1.3 Absence of evidence for climate change effects on babesiosis vectors
        • Rhipicephalus spp.
        • Ixodes scapularis
    • 32.2 Future Predictions
    • References
• Synopsis: Ticks
  • eo33 Conflict and Cooperation in Tick–Host–Pathogen Interactions Contribute to Increased Tick Fitness and Survival
    • 33.1 Expert Opinion
      • 33.1.1 A model for the study of tick–host–pathogen molecular interactions
      • 33.1.2 Impact of Anaplasma phagocytophilum infection on tick and human cells
      • 33.1.3 The relationship between conflict and cooperation of tick–host–pathogen interactions and climate change
    • 33.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo34 Climate, Ticks and Pathogens:Gaps and Caveats
    • 34.1 Expert Opinion
      • 34.1.1 Background: exophilic and endophilic ticks
      • 34.1.2 The question: are tick-borne pathogens spreading?
      • 34.1.3 Evidence supporting the effects of climate on ticks
      • 34.1.4 Confounding effects of the existing evidence
      • 34.1.5 The actual impact of climate:an example using Ixodes ricinus
    • 34.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo35 Climate and Prediction of Tick-Borne Diseases Facing the Complexity of the Pathogen–Tick–Host Triad at Northern Latitudes
    • 35.1 Expert Opinion
      • 35.1.1 Introduction
      • 35.1.2 Evidence for climate change impacts
      • 35.1.3 Evidence for other drivers of change
      • 35.1.4 Likely scenario
    • 35.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo36 Is the Clock ‘Ticking’ for Climate Change?
    • 36.1 Expert Opinion
      • 36.1.1 Introduction
      • 36.1.2 The protracted tick life cycle and its significance as a survival strategy
      • 36.1.3 Virus evolution, dispersal and transmission characteristics
    • 36.2 Future Predictions
      • 36.2.1 The next 50 years (2021–2071)
      • 36.2.2 What is the significance of tick-borne encephalitis virus dispersal in the context of climate change?
      • 36.2.3 What will happen beyond 50 years?
      • 36.2.4 Can climate change be reversed?
    • Disclaimer
    • References
  • eo37 Climate Instability and Emerging Tick-Borne Disease
    • 37.1 Expert Opinion
    • 37.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo38 Co-infections of Ticks
    • 38.1 Expert Opinion
      • 38.1.1 Introduction
      • 38.1.2 Evidence for climate change impacts
      • 38.1.3 Evidence against climate change impacts
    • 38.2 Future Predictions
      • 38.2.1 Next 10 years
      • 38.2.2 Next 20 years
      • 38.2.3 Next 50 years
    • References
  • eo39 Impact of Climate Change on Co-feeding Transmission
    • 39.1 Expert Opinion
      • 39.1.1 Introduction
      • 39.1.2 Impact of climate change on co-feeding transmission
      • 39.1.3 Infestation dynamics and Allee effects
    • 39.2 Future Predictions
    • Disclaimer
    • References
  • eo40 Human Behaviour Trumps Entomological Risk
    • 40.1 Expert Opinion
    • 40.2 Future Predictions
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
  • eo41 It’s All in the Timing: Effect of Tick Phenology on Pathogen Transmission Dynamics
    • 41.1 Expert Opinion
      • 41.1.1 Introduction
      • 41.1.2 The ‘canonical’ seasonal feeding inversion: robust persistence of Borrelia burgdorferi
      • 41.1.3 Synchrony in immature activity increases the fitness of pathogens and strains with short infectious periods:Anaplasma phagocytophilum and some Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto strains
      • 41.1.4 Stringent seasonal synchrony required for co-feeding transmission:tick-borne encephalitis virus in Europe, Powassan virus and Ehrlichia muris eauclairensis in the USA
      • 41.1.5 Alternative (non-horizontal) transmission pathways enhance pathogen persistence: Babesia microti and Powassan virus
      • 41.1.6 Effects of climate and weather on tick phenology and pathogen transmission dynamics
      • 41.1.7 A call for integration: R 0 models
    • 41.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo42 Anaplasma Species’ Novel Tick–Host–Pathogen Relationships and Effects of Climate Change
    • 42.1 Expert Opinion
      • 42.1.1 Introduction
      • 42.1.2 Evidence for climate change impacts
      • 42.1.3 Evidence against climate change impacts
    • 42.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo43 Zoonotic Potential in the Genera Anaplasma and Ehrlichia
    • 43.1 Expert Opinion
      • 43.1.1 Introduction
      • 43.1.2 Distribution
      • 43.1.3 Diagnostics
    • 43.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo44 Tick Vectors, Tick-Borne Diseases and Climate Change
    • 44.1 Expert Opinion
      • 44.1.1 Introduction
      • 44.1.2 Evidence for climate change impacts
        • Ixodes ricinus (sheep tick)
        • Dermacentor reticulatus (ornate dog tick)
        • Hyalomma marginatum (Mediterranean tick)
        • Amblyomma maculatum (Gulf Coast tick)
        • Ixodes scapularis (black-legged tick)
        • Haemaphysalis longicornis (Asian long-horned tick)
      • 44.1.3 Evidence against climate change impact
    • 44.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo45 Climate and Other Global Factors at the Zoonotic Interface in America:Influence on Diseases Caused by Tick-Borne Pathogens
    • 45.1 Expert Opinion
      • 45.1.1 Introduction to the players
      • 45.1.2 Evidence for global change and climate change impacts on pathogen reservoirs and tick maintenance hosts
      • 45.1.3 Disease incidence: evidence against climate change impacts?
      • 45.1.4 Human land use impacting tick host availability, distribution and abundance
      • 45.1.5 Human-assisted movement of ticks
    • 45.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo46 Microclimatic Conditions and RNA Viruses in Ticks
    • 46.1 Expert Opinion
    • 46.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo47 Climate, Ticks and Tick-Borne Encephalitis in Central Europe
    • 47.1 Expert Opinion
      • 47.1.1 Introduction
      • 47.1.2 Ixodes ricinus tick: ecology
      • 47.1.3 Tick-borne encephalitis:epidemiology
    • 47.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo48 Tick-Borne Viral Haemorrhagic Fever Infections
    • 48.1 Expert Opinion
      • 48.1.1 Introduction
      • 48.1.2 Virus dynamics
      • 48.1.3 Tick vector
      • 48.1.4 Host
      • 48.1.5 Role of the host
      • 48.1.6 Host abundance
      • 48.1.7 Host diversity
      • 48.1.8 Virus
    • 48.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo49 Climate Impact on Lyme Borreliosis and Its Causative Agents
    • 49.1 Expert Opinion
      • 49.1.1 Introduction
      • 49.1.2 Evidence for climate change impacts
    • 49.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo50 Climate Change and Tick-Borne Encephalitis in the Greater Alpine Region
    • 50.1 Expert Opinion
      • 50.1.1 Introduction
      • 50.1.2 Reported tick-borne encephalitis cases
      • 50.1.3 Evidence for climate change impacts
    • 50.2 Future Predictions
      • 50.2.1 Short-range tick-borne encephalitis forecast (the next 2 years)
      • 50.2.2 Medium-range tick-borne encephalitis forecast (the next 10 years)
      • 50.2.3 Long-range tick-borne encephalitis forecast (the next 80 years)
    • References
  • eo51 The Expansion of Japanese Spotted Fever and the Complex Group of Spotted Fever Group Rickettsiae in Japan
    • 51.1 Expert Opinion
      • 51.1.1 Japan and spotted fever group rickettsiae infections
      • 51.1.2 Diagnosis: strategy and limitations
      • 51.1.3 Japanese spotted fever
      • 51.1.4 Rickettsiosis and tick species vectors in Japan
      • 51.1.5 Recent findings in Niigata Prefecture, the border line of Japanese spotted fever endemicity in Japan coastal region
    • 51.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo52 Spatiotemporal and Demographic Patterns of Transmission of Kyasanur Forest Disease Virus in India
    • 52.1 Expert Opinion
      • 52.1.1 Introduction
      • 52.1.2 Kyasanur forest disease virus epidemiology and transmission
      • 52.1.3 Impact of climate change on Kyasanur forest disease virus emergence and transmission
    • 52.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo53 Argasid Ticks, Relapsing Fever and a Changing Climate
    • 53.1 Expert Opinion
      • 53.1.1 Introduction
      • 53.1.2 Current knowledge
    • 53.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo54 The Potential Effects of Climate Change on Lyme Borreliosis in East-Central Europe
    • 54.1 Expert Opinion
    • 54.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo55 Epidemiology of Severe Fever with Thrombocytopaenia Syndrome in China
    • 55.1 Expert Opinion
      • 55.1.1 Introduction
      • 55.1.2 Epidemiological characteristics of severe fever with thrombocytopaenia syndrome in China
        • Geographical distribution
        • Demographic characteristics
        • Seasonal distribution
      • 55.1.3 Epidemiological risk factors of severe fever with thrombocytopaenia syndrome disease in China
      • 55.1.4 Epidemiological distribution in animal vectors
    • 55.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo56 Climate Change and Debilitating Symptom Complexes Attributed to Ticks in Australia
    • 56.1 Expert Opinion
      • 56.1.1 Climate change and temperatures in Australia
      • 56.1.2 Tick-borne diseases in Australia
      • 56.1.3 Climate change, Australian ticks and associated human diseases
    • 56.2 Future Predictions
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
  • eo57 Effect of Climate Change on Mosquito-Borne Pathogens
    • 57.1 Expert Opinion
      • 57.1.1 Effect of environmental temperature on pathogen transmission
      • 57.1.2 A brief history lesson
      • 57.1.3 Zoonotic versus anthroponotic diseases
      • 57.1.4 Risk of the spread of exotic viruses
      • 57.1.5 Summary
    • 57.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo58 Ornithodoros Tick Vectors and African Swine Fever Virus
    • 58.1 Expert Opinion
      • 58.1.1 Introduction
      • 58.1.2 Ticks of the Ornithodoros erraticus species complex
      • 58.1.3 Ticks of the Ornithodoros moubata complex – the African sylvatic cycle
    • 58.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo59 Tick-Borne Diseases of Livestock in the UK
    • 59.1 Expert Opinion
    • 59.2 Future Predictions
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
  • eo60 Impact of Climate Change on Tick-Borne Diseases of Livestock in Pakistan – Looking Ahead
    • 60.1 Expert Opinion
      • 60.1.1 Introduction
      • 60.1.2 Climate and livestock in Pakistan
      • 60.1.3 Ticks and tick-borne diseases of ruminants in Pakistan
    • 60.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo61 The Emergence of Tick-Borne Diseases in Domestic Animals in Australia
    • 61.1 Expert Opinion
      • 61.1.1 Background
      • 61.1.2 Case study: Ehrlichia canis in Australia
      • 61.1.3 Case study: bovine anaemia due to Theileria orientalis group
      • 61.1.4 Tick-borne diseases in Australia and climate change
    • 61.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo62 Tick-Borne Infections in Central Europe
    • 62.1 Expert Opinion
      • 62.1.1 Introduction
      • 62.1.2 Expansion of indigenous tick species and diseases to new geographical areas and habitats, and emergence of new pathogens
      • 62.1.3 Introduction of new tick species and risk of establishment of diseases in non-endemic areas
    • 62.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo63 Impact of Climate Change on Ticks and Tick-Borne Infections in Russia
    • 63.1 Expert Opinion
      • 63.1.1 Introduction
      • 63.1.2 Preconditions for the habitation of certain tick species in a given area
      • 63.1.3 Effects of climate change on ixodid ticks
      • 63.1.4 Effects of abiotic factors on disease agents ecologically connected with ticks
      • 63.1.5 Climate change and morbidity of obligatory transmissible infections
    • 63.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo64 Is Climate Change Affecting Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases in Taiwan?
    • 64.1 Expert Opinion
      • 64.1.1 Introduction
      • 64.1.2 Evidence for and against climate change impacts
    • 64.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo65 Ticks and Tick-Borne Pathogens in the Caribbean Region in the Context of Climate Change
    • 65.1 Expert Opinion
      • 65.1.1 Introduction
      • 65.1.2 Ticks and tick-borne pathogens of importance in the Caribbean region
      • 65.1.3 Climate change in the Caribbean region of significance for ticks and tick-borne infections
    • 65.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo66 The Strange Case of Tick-Borne Viruses in Turkey
    • 66.1 Expert Opinion
      • 66.1.1 Tick-borne viruses
      • 66.1.2 The case of tick-borne encephalitis
      • 66.1.3 The case of Crimean–Congo haemorrhagic fever
    • 66.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo67 Melting, Melting Pot – Climate Change and Its Impact on Ticks and Tick-Borne Pathogens in the Arctic
    • 67.1 Expert Opinion
      • 67.1.1 Introduction
      • 67.1.2 Defining the Arctic and its ecological conditions for ticks
      • 67.1.3 Climate change in the Arctic
      • 67.1.4 Ticks and tick-borne pathogens in the Arctic
    • 67.2 Future Predictions
      • 67.2.1 Future prediction for climate in Arctic
      • 67.2.2 Future predictions for ticks and tick-borne pathogens in the Arctic
    • Acknowledgement
    • References
  • eo68 Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases in the Middle East
    • 68.1 Expert Opinion
      • 68.1.1 Introduction
      • 68.1.2 Ticks in the Middle East
        • Egypt
        • Iran
        • Iraq
        • Palestine and Israel
        • Jordan
        • Kuwait
        • Lebanon
        • Oman
        • Qatar
        • Saudi Arabia
        • Turkey
        • Yemen
      • 68.1.3 Tick-borne diseases in the Middle East
    • 68.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo69 The Emergence of Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases in the USA
    • 69.1 Expert Opinion
      • 69.1.1 Introduction
      • 69.1.2 Dermacentor spp. and transmitted pathogens
      • 69.1.3 Amblyomma spp. and transmitted pathogens
      • 69.1.4 Ixodes spp. and transmitted pathogens
      • 69.1.5 Ornithodoros spp.
    • 69.2 Future Predictions
      • 69.2.1 Emergence potential of Dermacentor ticks
      • 69.2.2 Northward expansion of Amblyomma ticks
      • 69.2.3 Changes in range of Ixodes ticks
      • 69.2.4 Emergence potential of Ornithodoros ticks
      • 69.2.5 New and emerging threats
    • References
  • eo70 Role of Climate and Other Factors in Determining the Dynamics of Tick and Tick-Transmitted Pathogen Populations and Distribution in Western, Central and Eastern Africa
    • 70.1 Expert Opinion
      • 70.1.1 General perspectives
      • 70.1.2 Case study 1: Rhipicephalus microplus with a focus in West and Central Africa
      • 70.1.3 Case study 2: northern expansion of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus into South Sudan through anthropogenic cattle movement
    • 70.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo71 Ticks and Tick-Borne Pathogens in China
    • 71.1 Expert Opinion
      • 71.1.1 Introduction
      • 71.1.2 Ticks and tick-borne infections
        • Ticks and their distributions
        • Tick-borne infections
        • Tick-borne diseases and climate change
      • 71.1.3 Emerging tick-borne pathogens in tick vectors and human beings
        • Anaplasma
        • Babesia
        • Spotted fever group rickettsiae
        • Borrelia
        • Viruses
    • 71.2 Future Predictions
    • Disclaimer
    • References
  • eo72 Tick-Borne Rickettsioses in Africa
    • 72.1 Expert Opinion
      • 72.1.1 Introduction
      • 72.1.2 Rickettsia africae
      • 72.1.3 Rickettsia conorii
      • 72.1.4 Rickettsia aeschlimannii
      • 72.1.5 Rickettsia sibirica subsp. mongolotimonae
      • 72.1.6 Other tick-borne rickettsiae detected in Africa
    • 72.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo73 Climate and the Emergence of Tick-Borne Disease in Canada
    • 73.1 Expert Opinion
      • 73.1.1 The Canadian context
        • Geography and climate
        • Surveillance
      • 73.1.2 A brief history of tick-borne disease in Canada
        • The pre-Lyme era (before 1990)
        • Current situation
      • 73.1.3 The role of climate
        • Tick physiology and life cycle
        • Temperature and tick population growth
        • Geographic range limits
        • Speed of spread
        • Climate and other ticks in Canada
    • 73.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo74 Climate Change Impacts on Ixodes ricinus Ticks in Scotland and Implications for Lyme Disease Risk
    • 74.1 Expert Opinion
      • 74.1.1 Changes in Ixodes ricinus and Lyme disease cases in Scotland
      • 74.1.2 Scotland’s changing climate
      • 74.1.3 Can we attribute Scotland’s increases in Ixodes ricinus to climate change?
      • 74.1.4 Indirect climate change impacts
    • 74.2 Future Predictions
      • 74.2.1 Predictions due to direct impacts of climate change
        • Altitude
        • Seasonality
      • 74.2.2 Resilience to climate change?
      • 74.2.3 Green recovery impacts
    • References
  • eo75 Possible Impact of Climate and Environmental Change on Ticks and Tick-Borne Disease in England
    • 75.1 Expert Opinion
      • 75.1.1 Introduction
      • 75.1.2 The possible direct effects of climate change on ticks and tick-borne disease
        • Increased temperatures, heatwaves, mild winters on survival and expansion of ticks
        • The role of temperature on native ticks
        • Non-native ticks and climatic change
        • Changing temperatures on tick-borne disease
      • 75.1.3 Possible indirect effects of climate change on ticks and tick-borne disease in a changing environment
        • Changes in landscape management
        • Impact of climate change on tick hosts
        • A change in human exposure to ticks with climate change
    • 75.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo76 Climate Change, Ticks and Tick-Borne Pathogens in Northern Europe
    • 76.1 Expert Opinion
      • 76.1.1 Introduction
      • 76.1.2 What may be the consequences of a warmer climate in Northern Europe?
        • Tick survival, reproduction and distribution
        • Introduction of ‘exotic’ viruses and ticks
    • 76.2 Future Predictions
    • References
  • eo77 Tick and Tick-Borne Disease Circulation in a Changing Marine Ecosystem
    • 77.1 Expert Opinion
    • 77.2 Future Predictions
    • References
• Synopsis: Disease
  • Final Synopsis and Future Predictions
• Index
• Back Cover